This series is designed to introduce students to key topics and authors.
Accessible and lively, these introductions will also appeal to readers who
want to broaden their understanding of the books and authors they enjoy.
.
Ideal for students, teachers, and lecturers
.
Concise, yet packed with essential information
.
Key suggestions for further reading
Titles
in
this
series:
Bulson The Cambridge Introduction to James Joyce
Cooper The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot
Dillon The Cambridge Introduction to Early English Theatre
Goldman The Cambridge Introduction to Virginia Woolf
Holdeman The Cambridge Introduction to W. B. Yeats
McDonald The Cambridge Introduction to Samuel Beckett
Peters The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Scofield The Cambridge Introduction to the American Short Story
Todd The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen
The
Cambridge
Introduction
to
Joseph
Conrad
JOHNG. PETERS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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© John G. Peters 2006
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First published in print format 2006
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Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
For my grandfather, George L. Snider, and my late grandmother,
Ruth E. Snider
Contents
Preface page v iii
Acknowledgments x
Chapter 1 Conrad’s life 1
Chapter 2 Conrad’s context 19
Chapter 3 Conrad’s early period 37
Chapter 4 Conrad’s middle period 52
Chapter 5 Conrad’s la ter period 99
Chapter 6 Conrad criticism 119
Guide to further reading 136
Index 141
Jo´zefTeodorKonradKorzeniowski was born in Berdyczo´winapredominantly
Polish part of Ukraine on December 3, 1857 to Apollo Korzeniowski
and his wife Ewelina Bobrowska. Conrad’s parents were of the szlachta, the
Polish gentry. At the time of Conrad’s birth, Poland had been partitioned
among Prussia, Russia, and Austria-Hungary for over sixty years. Apollo
Korzeniowski was a writer and a man passionately committed to Polish
independence. He played a prominent role in the revolutionary activities of
the early 1860s, for which he was arrested and convicted of seditious actions.
In 1862, Korzeniowski was sentenced to exile and sent to Vologda, Russia,
and then later to Chernikhov. He was accompanied by his wife and young
son, and the family suVered greatly during their exile. As a result of the poor
conditions, Conrad’s parents both contracted tuberculosis, and his mother
died in April 1865. This was a solitary time in Conrad’s life, as the boy spent
mostof his timein the sole companyof his father.Korzeniowskiremainedin
exile until early 1868 when he was allowed to leave in order to aid in Conrad’s
recovery from an illness. This wasa better time for them, butKorzeniowski’s
tuberculosis soon worsened, and he died in May of 1869, leaving Conrad an
orphan. Korzeniowski was given a hero’s burial and is still considered a
national hero in Poland.
Conrad’s experiencewithhisfatherduring theirtimetogethervery much
influenced his later years. His devotion to literature, interest in revolutionary
politics, attitudes about Russia, skeptical view of the world, and sometimes
adventurous spirit all probably have some origin in his experience
with his father. After his father’s death, Conrad was cared for by family
and friends, particularly Tadeusz Bobrowski, his maternal uncle, who
became asecondfather toConrad. Unlike thefiery andidealistic Korzeniowski,
Bobrowski was conservative, careful, practical, and ultimately
disapproving of Korzeniowski’s approach to the world. Over the years,
Bobrowski exerted a strong influence on Conrad and his attitudes, so
Conrad’s character seems to have been very much aVected by both his
father and his uncle.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
As early as 1872, Conrad expressed a desire to pursue a life at sea. This was
an unusual career choice for a Polish boy, and Conrad was certainly influencedin
his choicebyhisreadingof such authors as Cooper andMarryat.In
1874, Bobrowski finally agreed to allow Conrad to move to Marseilles,
France, to pursue his maritime training. Thus at age seventeen, Conrad in
eVect left Poland for good. In Marseilles, Conrad studied his trade, and his
uncle supported him with a generous allowance, but as Bobrowski’s letters
attest, Conrad was irresponsible with money, and althoughBobrowski always
rescued Conrad from his youthful irresponsibility, he constantly upbraided
him for such failings.
In July of 1876, Conrad served as a steward aboard the Saint Antoine,
which traveled to the Carribean and the Americas, and this represents Conrad’sonly
experienceinthe newworld.Itwouldprovetobethe basisforhis
most panoramic novel, Nostromo. Later, in early 1878, Conrad apparently
went through a good deal of money, may have been involved in a romantic
encounter (possibly with the model for Don˜a Rita of TheArrow of Gold), and
mayhave been involved in some smuggling activity.What occurred after this
time is not entirely clear, but, according to Bobrowski’s letters, it appears that
Conrad attempted suicide. The event remains obscure because at the time
and in later years Conrad claimed to have been wounded in a duel.
During these years, the issue of Conrad’s citizenship became increasingly
important. Bobrowski agreed to allow Conrad to go to Marseilles not only
because of Conrad’s desire to pursue a life at sea, but because, as a result of
his father’s revolutionary activities, Conrad was subject to lengthy conscription
in the Russian army. Bobrowski thought that by moving to France,
Conrad could become naturalized in another country more easily. Because
France required a valid passport to work in the French Merchant Marine
Service, however, and because Russia refused to issue such a passport to
Conrad, it became clear that Conrad would not be free from military
obligations to Russia if he remained in France. Consequently, Bobrowski
encouraged Conrad to seek naturalization elsewhere. Thus, Conrad eventually
joined the British Merchant Marine service, despite speaking no English
at that time.
Over the next few years, Conrad sailed on several English ships, and in 1880
he studied to become an oYcer,passed his examination, and shortly thereafter
became thirdmate aboardthe LochEtive.Wishing to move up the professional
ladder, Conrad went in search of a position as second mate, finally obtaining
one aboardthe Palestine inNovember 1881.His experience aboard the Palestine
was to become the raw material for one of his most important short
stories, ‘‘Youth.’’ A good deal of Conrad’s experience aboard the Palestine
Conrad’s life
resembles the events chronicled in ‘‘Youth,’’ including the lengthy repairs
before finally setting out, the ship catching fire, their experiencein life boats,
and Conrad’s first close-up view of the exotic East.
Conrad continued to ply his trade, and in 1884 found himself ashore in
Bombay, India, where he accepted a position as second mate aboard the
Narcissus. His experience was to form the basis for his first great novel The
Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus.’’ Upon arriving in England again, Conrad had
completed the required time to qualify for the first oYcer examination. After
some initial diYculty, he eventually passed the examination. However, positions
were scarce, and, unable to obtain a position as first oYcer, despite his
new certificate, Conrad finally accepted one as second oYcer aboard the
Tilkhurst inApril 1885.In 1886, Conrad took the examination fora master’s
certificate, which would qualify him to serve as captain, but failed one
section. In July, Conrad applied for British naturalization and was formally
accepted on August 18, and later that year Conrad again took the master’s
examination, this time passing it. In 1887, Conrad shipped out of Singapore
as first mate aboardthe Vidar, which stopped in various ports throughout the
MalayArchipelago. Conrad’s time aboard the Vidar was his first opportunity
to experience the East for an extended period of time, and the experience
would become valuable material for much of his fiction about the East.
In January 1888, Conrad left the Vidar and shortly thereafter received his
first and only command when he was appointed captain of the Otago.
This experience would provide the basis for much of Conrad’s fiction,
particularly The Shadow-Line, ‘‘Falk,’’ ‘‘A Smile of Fortune,’’ and ‘‘The Secret
Sharer.’’ The Otago was based out of Australia, and during his time in
command, Conrad traveled to Port Louis, Mauritius, as well as to various
ports along the Australian coast. In March 1889, Conrad decided to give up
command of the Otago. The reasons for this decision have remained a
mystery. He may have been averse to living in the East on a relatively
permanent basis, or he may have harbored thoughts of eventually pursuing
a career on land in England. Shortly afterwards, a significant change occurred
in Conrad’s life: he began to write his first novel, Almayer’sFolly –in English.
He could have written in Polish or French, but chose English instead.
Having been unsuccessful in finding a berth bound for the East, Conrad
began looking for a command in Africa. He went to Brussels and met Albert
Thys, the director of the Socie´te´ Belge pour le Commerce du Haut-Congo,
about the possibility of commandinga steamboat on the Congo River.While
there, Conrad met a distant relative, Aleksander Poradowski, and his wife,
Marguerite. Poradowski died only days after Conrad met him, but the visit
was fortuitous in that Conrad and Marguerite became close friends. Shortly
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
before leaving for the Congo, Conrad made his first trip home to Poland in
sixteen years. With experiences so diVerent from those he encountered,
Conrad was uncomfortable and must have recognized how little he had in
common by then with his compatriots.
In May 1890, Conrad set oV
on one of the most important voyages of his
life when he traveled to the Congo to accept his post. His experience would
be recorded in part in his ‘‘Congo Diary,’’ but it would also become the basis
for ‘‘An Outpost of Progress’’ and his most widely known tale ‘‘Heart of
Darkness.’’ He arrived on the Congo River in June and began his journey up
river, proceeding from Bowa to Matadi. During his stay, he became friendly
with Roger Casement, who later became famous when he exposed the
atrocities occurring in the Belgian Congo. Despite the colonial enterprise
being depictedinEurope asa humanitarian endeavor, Conrad foundagreat
deal of greed, waste, and chaos. In early August, Conrad arrived in Kinshasa
intent on taking command of the steamboat Florida. The Florida, however,
had been damaged, and Conrad instead had to travel up river on the Roi des
Belges, under the command of another captain. They arrived at Stanley Falls
(nowKisangani) at the beginning of September and shortly thereafter headed
back to Kinshasa. Conrad was asked to take over command of the Roi des
Belges temporarily while the captain was ill, and the few days he acted as
substitute captain constitute Conrad’s only command in Africa. The return
voyage carried a sick agent, George Antoine Klein, who died on route. Klein
became oneof the models forKurtzin ‘‘Heart of Darkness.’’ During the next
several months, Conrad traveled throughout the Congo on company business
and appears to have suVered a good deal from ill health, so much so that
he was eventually invalided home, arriving back in Europe at the end of
January1891. Conrad’s experiencein the Congo had an enormousimpact on
him. Despite itsrelativebrevity,it wouldaVect him for the rest of his life and
as much as anything else influenced his outlook on civilization and human
existence itself. His criticism of the abuses and disorder he witnessed was
unrelenting, as evidenced in his various writings on the subject.
After returning from the Congo, Conrad spent some months recovering
his physical and psychological health. In November of 1891, he accepted a
first mate position aboard the Torrens, which regularly sailed between
England and Australia. On a return trip from Australia in March 1893,
Conrad met Edward Lancelot Sanderson and John Galsworthy, who would
become Conrad’s life-long friends. Both would also become literary figures,
Galsworthy an important novelist and playwright, and Sanderson a minor
poet. In July, the Torrens arrived in England, and Conrad decided to resign
his positionandtakean extendedtriptoPoland.Bylate1893,hewasbackin
Conrad’s life
England and looking for work. He signed on to the steamer Adowa in late
November and sailed to Rouen, France, intending to carry passengers to
Canada, but the trip never materialized, and so in January the Adowa
returned to London. Although he didn’t know it at the time, when Conrad
disembarked he left his life at sea behind him for ever. The next month,
another dramatic change occurred in Conrad’s life when Tadeusz Bobrowski
died, leaving a spiritual void in Conrad’s life. Despite their diVerent temperaments,
Bobrowski’s influence on Conrad had been unmistakable, and Conrad
keenly felt his uncle’s loss.
Although Conrad continued to look for work at sea, he was unsuccessful
and was already beginning his journey toward a new life. Throughout
the first half of 1894, he worked to finish Almayer’s Folly, which he sent to
T. FisherUnwinin earlyJuly. Then inAugust, Conrad began what he thought
would be a short story entitled ‘‘Two Vagabonds,’’ but, as was to happen
frequently in his career, the story evolved into a full-length novel, An Outcast
of the Islands. In early October, Unwin agreed to publish Almayer’s Folly and
Conrad oYcially began his literary career. The acceptance of Almayer’s Folly
also brought Conrad in touch with one of his most important literary
contacts: Edward Garnett. Garnett was one of Unwin’s readers and had
recommended the book to him. Conrad soon developed a close friendship
with Garnett, and much of his most interesting correspondence is with
Garnett. More important than the personal friendship, however, was Garnett’s
eye for good literature, and he became an invaluable sounding board
for Conrad’s future writings, as well as being instrumental in introducing
Conrad to a number of important people.
Almayer’s Folly took longer to write than most of Conrad’s other works,
but he seemed to suVer from none of the emotional stress and depression
that would so mark his literary career. As early as An Outcast of the Islands,
though, Conrad was beset with self doubt and depression about his work,
and, as would prove to be the case almost invariably, Conrad struggled
mightily with its writing. While Conrad was still wrestling with An Outcast
of the Islands, Almayer’s Folly appeared in print in early 1895. The reviews
were generally positive, and Conrad was pleased, but despite the positive
reviews, the book did not sell well.His experiencewith Almayer’sFollywould
be onewith whichhe would soon become familiar.For nearly the first twenty
years of his writing career, reviews of Conrad’s books generally would be
overwhelmingly favorable, but his books would not sell. This cycle of agonized
writing, followed by positive reception, followed by poor sales would
contribute to Conrad’s constant problems with health and finances. Conrad
finished An Outcast of the Islands in September of 1895, and shortly after
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
completing it began a third novel, entitled The Sisters. He worked on it for
several months, sending part of the manuscript to Garnett for evaluation.
Based on Garnett’s comments and on his own opinion, Conrad eventually
abandoned the project around March of 1896.
About this time a significant change occurred in Conrad’s life. Little is
knownregardinghis courtshipofJessie George,atypist, whomhe appearsto
have met perhaps as early as 1894. Jessie came from humble origins, but
apparently, as they worked together, an intimacy evolved. All that can be said
for certainis that theirrelationship developedquickly,andbyMarch24, 1896
Conrad was a married man. Conrad’s choice of Jessie has puzzled many.
Coming from such diVerent backgrounds, the pair would seem to have been
ill suited for one another. Apparently, Conrad did not even find Jessie
particularly attractive. Nevertheless, despite their diVerences, their marriage
appears to have been reasonably successful. Perhaps only someone of Jesse’s
temperament could have dealt with someone of Conrad’s temperament. In
any case, their marriage worked out better than most probably would have
predicted. The couple honeymooned in Brittany, during which time Conrad
wrote the short story ‘‘The Idiots.’’ Having abandoned The Sisters, Conrad
turned his attention to what would become his most diYcult novel project:
The Rescuer (later titled The Rescue). Begun in 1896, the novel was some
twenty-three years in its completion.
While struggling with The Rescuer, Conrad continued to work on other
projects. During this time, he wrote perhaps the best of his early stories, ‘‘An
Outpost of Progress.’’ Conrad also wrote ‘‘The Lagoon’’ and probably began
work on The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus.’’ Reviews of An Outcast of the Islands
also began to come out about this time, and, like those of Almayer’s Folly,
they were generally favorable. As it turns out, one of the reviewers was
H. G. Wells, with whom Conrad corresponded. This resulted in a friendship
that lasted for a number of years before they had a falling out.
Conrad’spoor managementof money becameaproblem onceagainashe
lost a good deal of his inheritance from Bobrowski through speculative
investing. This situation would be the beginning of the constant financial
diYculties that would beset Conrad for at least the next fifteen years. Conrad
and Jesse returned to England in September and settled into their new life.
Conrad soon began working in earnest on The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus,’’ one
of the few novels over which he did not seem to struggle. He finished it in
January of 1897; it was to be Conrad’s first literary masterpiece and the one
which would initiate his most productive literary period. In February,
Conrad made another important literary friendship, this time with Henry
James. Conrad thought James to be the greatest living novelist, and in turn
Conrad’s life
James appreciated Conrad’s work. Around this time, Conrad also began
writing ‘‘Karain,’’ which he thought would be easy and bring in some money
if placed in a good magazine. The story turned out to be more diYcult
than he expected, and Garnett’s advice and help placing the story were
invaluable, particularly since the story was eventually published in Blackwood’s
Magazine, one of the premier magazines of the day. Whilst writing
‘‘Karain,’’ Conrad began work on ‘‘The Return.’’ This long story cost Conrad
considerable eVort but was one of his more disappointing eVorts. It was one
of only two stories that Conrad was never able to place in a magazine.
In August 1897, an important and interesting acquaintance entered Conrad’s
life. After reading ‘‘An Outpost of Progress,’’ R. B. Cunninghame
Graham wrote to Conrad expressing his admiration for the story. Graham
remained a friend to Conrad for the rest of Conrad’s life. In some ways
similar and in some ways diVerent, the two made an interesting pair. Graham
was a swashbuckling figure and descended from the Scottish aristocracy.
Some of Conrad’s most significant letters were written to Graham, and
Graham was a useful sounding board for Conrad’s political and literary
views. Conrad seems to have been able to be more direct with Graham than
he was with others, and Conrad’s view of the world and his pervasive
skepticism are particularly pronounced in many of his letters to him.
During the summer of 1897, Conrad wrote his most important statement
of aesthetic theorywhenhecomposedaprefaceto TheNigger of the ‘‘Narcissus.’’
About this time, Conrad was introduced to Stephen Crane, who had
been impressed with The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus’’ and wanted to meet
Conrad. The two developeda strong friendship that was cut shortbyCrane’s
untimely death. Conrad genuinely appreciated much of what Crane wrote
and certainly appreciated his warm friendship. Throughout this time, The
Rescue hung over Conrad’s head. Although still intending to complete the
novel, he made little headway. Meanwhile, The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus’’
appeared in book form in early December and was Conrad’s most successful
book to that point, receiving even more favorable reviews than had his
previous novels. Unfortunately, once again, praise did not translate into
significant sales, and Conrad’s financial situation grew steadily worse.
In January of 1898, Conrad’s first son, Borys, was born. Though slow to
take to the idea of fatherhood, Conrad eventually developed a warm relationship
with both of his sons. In March, he published his first story collection
entitled Tales of Unrest, which contained ‘‘Karain,’’ ‘‘The Idiots,’’ ‘‘An
Outpost of Progress,’’ ‘‘TheReturn,’’ and ‘‘The Lagoon.’’ Although TheRescue
was supposed to be Conrad’s primary focus at this time, he continued to
work on other projects. It was during this time that Conrad wrote ‘‘Youth.’’
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
The story first introduces Conrad’s readers to his most famous character,
Charlie Marlow. Marlow narrates ‘‘Youth,’’ as he does ‘‘Heart of Darkness’’
and Lord Jim shortly thereafter. Many years later, Marlow would take his
curtain call as narrator of Chance.
Conrad’s financial situation continued to deteriorate, both because of his
inability to finish The Rescue and because of his habit of living beyond his
means. In October, Conrad moved to Pent Farm in Kent, renting a cottage
from Ford Madox Ford (HueVer), to whom Garnett had introduced him.
Although Conrad had closer long-term friendships and longer literary relationships,
none were probably as important to his development as a writer as
was his relationship with Ford. The two writers even collaborated on three
projects: The Inheritors, Romance, and TheNature of theCrime. Their theories
about literature and literarytechniques tended to rub oV
on one another, and
for manyyears the two were close friends. Fordprobably got more out of this
literary relationship than did Conrad, but it would be wrong to assume that
Conrad learned nothing from Ford.
Probably aroundJune of 1898, Conrad began working on Lord Jim, which
he had assumed would be a short story. In the fall, he began working on the
piecein earnest, and in December, while working on Lord Jim, Conrad began
‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ which later appeared in Blackwood’s Magazine. Compared
to his usual experience, Conrad had little trouble writing ‘‘Heart of
Darkness’’ and in a relatively short time produced one of his finest works. In
January, Conrad received a prize from the literary weekly Academy for Tales
of Unrest. Despite his increased critical acclaim, however, Conrad’s financial
circumstances were no better.
In February, the publishers dropped plans to bring out The Rescue, and
Conrad was relieved of a weighty burden. In the meantime, he continued to
work on LordJim. Around this time, Conrad unknowingly became embroiled
in a painful episode. Wincenty Lutoslawski, having met Conrad some time
earlier, wroteanarticle entitled ‘‘The EmigrationofTalent,’’in whichhe either
misunderstood or misrepresented Conrad to be an example of an ex-patriot
Pole who chose to write in English rather than Polish because of the greater
financial possibilities. The article resulted in Eliza Orzeszkowa’s scathing
attack on Conrad, in which she accused him of selling out and betraying
Poland.When Conrad learned of this exchange he was both hurt and angered.
This would not be the only time that Conrad would be made to feel that he had
betrayedPolandbyleaving his homeland. Conrad was particularly sensitiveto
such criticism and probably did feel some guilt over having left.
Meanwhile, the first installment of Lord Jim appeared in the October issue
of Blackwood’s Magazine. At various points, Conrad thought the novel was
Conrad’s life
nearing its conclusion, but each timehe wouldbewrong.At this time,he was
working almost exclusively on the novel, but he did break away on occasion
to collaborate with Ford on The Inheritors. As with all of their collaborative
works, although Conrad made significant contributions, for the most part
the work represents Ford’s ideas, work, and writing. Also in October, the
Second Boer War had broken out, and Conrad first revealed his extreme
skepticism toward politics. Althoughhe felt an allegiance toward his adopted
country, he was, at the same time, extremely suspicious of politics and
jingoism.
In the meantime, Conradcontinued to experiencediYculties writing Lord
Jim, while financial and health troubles also plagued him. Nevertheless, he
made good progress on the novel. During this time, Crane’s illness took a turn
for the worse, and Conrad saw him for the last time in May, shortly before
Crane died. Crane was a good friend to Conrad, and Conrad’s aVection for
Crane’s memory never wavered.
The next month would bring an end to Lord Jim and to the novel that
many believe to be his greatest. After finally finishing Lord Jim, Conrad next
began working with Ford on a collaborative novel entitled Seraphina (later
Romance).About this time, Conrad accepted anoVer fromJames B. Pinker to
act as Conrad’s literary agent. This arrangement relieved Conrad of the
trouble of finding places in which to publish his work and also provided
him with a more regular income. Although their relationship was at times
volatile, Pinker was a great supporter of Conrad and made his life easier. In
late 1900, Lord Jim appeared in book form, and again reviews were quite
positive. However, as the novel was the first work that fully implemented
Conrad’s narrative experimentations, reviewers also expressed a good deal of
confusion. Strong praise of the novel from Henry James, though, greatly
pleased Conrad.Again, sales were modest, and Conrad’s financial diYculties
continued. By September, Conrad had begun his next important story,
‘‘Typhoon,’’ which he finished in January of 1901. He then began work on
‘‘Falk,’’ the only story besides ‘‘The Return’’ that he was unable to publish in
serial form. Unlike ‘‘The Return,’’ whose diYculty may have been its quality,
the diYculty with ‘‘Falk’’ appears to have been its subject material, in which
cannibalism appears prominently. The story was finished in April, and, like
‘‘The Return,’’ eventually found its way into a collection of stories.
With ‘‘Falk’’ completed, Conrad andFordbegan working in greater earnest
on Romance and Conrad continued to work on his own writings, composing
‘‘Amy Foster’’ during part of May and June of 1901. In June, while Conrad
and Ford were working on Romance, The Inheritors was published. The
Inheritors did not sell well and, unlike Conrad’s own books, it was not very
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
favorablyreviewed, either. Conrad andFord worked on Romancethroughthe
summer and fall of 1901. In the fall, Conrad also began his story ‘‘Tomorrow,’’
which he finished in February 1902. Early in 1902, Conrad and
Fordwere still working on Romance.Unfortunately, they were unable to get it
serialized, at which point Conrad turned his attention to ‘‘The End of the
Tether.’’
In the midst of deep financial diYculties, Conrad experienced yet another
setbackwhenpart ofthe manuscriptfor‘‘TheEndoftheTether’’was burned
when a lamp exploded. In July, though, Conrad received some good news
in the form of a grant from the Royal Literary Society, which helped to
alleviate some of his financial diYculties. The next few months were spent
primarily in completing ‘‘The End of theTether. ’’InNovember, Conrad and
Ford again took up Romance, and at the same time ‘‘Youth’’ and Two Other
Stories (which included ‘‘Youth,’’ ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ and ‘‘The End of the
Tether’’) appeared to somewhat more mixedreviews.However, the book sold
a little better than his previous books.November also brought the beginning
of Conrad’s next important work: Nostromo. Unlike Conrad’s previous
writings, which were drawn largely from personal experience, Nostromocame
almost exclusively from Conrad’s imagination and his reading. The novel
would grow and grow, and much of Conrad’s writing in 1903 was spent on it.
In April, ‘‘Typhoon’’ and Other Stories (containing ‘‘Typhoon,’’ ‘‘Amy
Foster,’’ ‘‘Falk,’’ and ‘‘To-morrow’’) appeared and was well received, and in
September, Conrad was forcedto set aside Nostromoin order to complete the
final work on Romance, which was finally published in October. The novel’s
reception was not particularly good, and it did not bring the authors the
popularity they desired. Conrad then returned to Nostromo, finding the task
incredibly diYcult and often a cause of bouts of illness and depression. In
January 1904, Nostromo began to be serialized, and in the same month
Conrad also began writing some non-fiction sketches of his life at sea.
Eventually, these would become part of The Mirror of the Sea. Shortly
thereafter, while still working on Nostromo, Conrad began writing a stage
version of ‘‘To-morrow,’’ entitled One More Day.
The diYcult work on Nostromo continued, while Conrad also wrote more
sketches for TheMirror of the Sea. This latter book seems to have emerged in
part at Ford’s instigation and perhaps also through Ford’s help in that Ford
apparently made suggestions, asked questions, and generally helped in the
book’s construction. Meanwhile, Conrad’s financial diYculties continued,
butWilliam Rothenstein,a well-known portrait painter, had become friendly
with Conrad and helped to arrange for a loan that greatly helped the
situation. Finally, at the end of August, Conrad finished Nostromo. Given
Conrad’s life
the novel’s complexity and diYculty, it is not surprising that it was, with a
few notable exceptions, misunderstood and not very favorably reviewed.
Sales of the book were correspondingly modest.
After completing Nostromo, Conrad seems to have found it diYcult to
write. In November, he began work on what would become ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz,’’
which appears to have been little more than an attempt to write a popular
story for money. During that time, Conrad also wrote more sketches for The
Mirror of the Sea.For some time,Jessie had been suVering from a knee injury.
Her condition, along with his feeling of writer’s block, prompted Conrad to
plan a trip to Capri as a restorative vacation. It was in Capri that Conrad
wrote his most famous political essay: ‘‘Autocracy and War,’’ in which he
expounded his views, particularly those regarding Russia.
Conrad’s financial diYculties were alleviated for a time when he received a
grant (largely through Rothenstein’s intervention) from the Royal Bounty
fund. He returned to England, and in June 1905 One More Day was performed.
Although two important drama critics, Max Beerbohm and George
BernardShaw,bothlikedtheplay,itdidnotresultinthe financialsuccessfor
which Conrad had hoped. During the summer of 1905, Conrad wrote two
more essays for The Mirror of the Sea, as well as his essay ‘‘Books,’’ a further
statementof hisviews onwriting.In the fall,hewrote more sketches for The
Mirror of the Sea, finished ‘‘GasparRuiz,’’ and began working on what would
eventually become Chance – one of Conrad’s more drawn-out novelprojects,
although not to the degree of The Rescue. Later in the fall of 1905, Conrad
produced rather quickly ‘‘The Brute,’’ ‘‘The Anarchist,’’ and ‘‘The Informer.’’
The latter two demonstrate his continuing interest in political issues and
serve as precursors to the issues he would investigate in The Secret Agent and
Under Western Eyes. In February 1906, Conrad again decided to go abroad,
this time to southernFrance, and began work on ‘‘Verloc,’’ another storythat
would eventually grow into a novel(The Secret Agent). The essays for The
Mirror of the Sea were now complete, and Conrad began preparing the book
for publication.
Conrad returned to England inApril and around that time again collaborated
with Ford, this time on The Nature of the Crime, a novella, which again
was aimedata popular audience.As before,Forddidthe bulkofthewriting,
and the work later appeared in The English Review. In August, Conrad
welcomed the birth of his second son, John, named after John Galsworthy,
and in October, TheMirror of the Sea was published and wellreceived.Wells,
Kipling, Galsworthy, and Henry James all wrote favorable reviews, but the
book did not sell very well. All this time, Conrad had also been working on
The SecretAgent,completingitinNovember.Whilewritingthenovel, Conrad
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
experienced few of his usual diYculties. After completing it, however,
Conrad, as he did so often, fell into depression. After finishing most of his
important works, his emotional and psychological energy would give out, as
if the concentrated strain of creative production would finally release once
the project was finished.
Conrad’s next project was his short story ‘‘Il Conde,’’ which he finished in
Decemberand followedwith anothertriptothe southofFrance.The setting
proved particularly conducive to Conrad’s already strong interest in Napoleonic
France, and he spent several months writing ‘‘The Duel.’’ In May, the
family went to Switzerland, in part because of Borys’s health problems.
Conrad returned to England in August and shortly afterwards moved from
Pent Farm to Someries in Bedford. In September 1907, The Secret Agent was
published in book form and, like Nostromo, was misunderstood. Although
some reviews were positive, more were negative, and, not surprisingly, the
book sold poorly. All this time, Conrad was supposed to be writing Chance,
but he made little progress. Instead, in December 1907, he began work on
what he thought would be another short storyentitled ‘‘Razumov,’’ but which
was to evolve into UnderWestern Eyes, and consequently Conrad laid Chance
aside again. In early 1908, he completed ‘‘The Black Mate,’’ which was
primarily an attempt to bring in a little money. The bulk of Conrad’s time,
however, was spent working on UnderWestern Eyes.Unlike The SecretAgent,
the new novel was slow and diYcult work for him, perhaps unsurprisingly,
since the book is about Russia and revolutionary politics.
In August, another collection of Conrad’s stories was published: A Set of
Six, containing ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz,’’ ‘‘The Informer,’’ ‘‘The Brute,’’ ‘‘The Anarchist,’’
‘‘The Duel,’’ and ‘‘Il Conde.’’ Lacking most of the narrativediYculties of
Conrad’s most recent novels, the collection was well received. About this
time, Conrad also began what would become A Personal Record. Again, the
idea for the volume may have come first from Ford. In any case, Ford was a
strong advocate of the book, and when he started his important journal, The
English Review, a selection appeared in the first issue and was later followed
by other selections. The year 1909 also marked the downfall of Ford’s
friendship with Conrad. Ford and his wife, Elsie, had been having troubles
for some time, and each seems to have tried to draw the Conrads into their
conflict. That, coupled with Ford’s ability to irritate and alienate many of
their mutual friends and acquaintances, finally resulted in a break in their
friendship that was never fully repaired.
Despite some progress on UnderWestern Eyes, much of 1909 seems to have
been taken up with Conrad’s struggles with health and financial issues as well
aswriter’s block.His onlycompleted work was an essayentitled ‘‘The Silence
Conrad’s life
of the Sea,’’ which was published in September. In late November, Conrad
began writing ‘‘The Secret Sharer,’’ usually considered to be one of his finest
stories.Hewrotewith considerable speed, and, for oneof the few timesin his
writing career, seemed genuinely pleased with the result. Progress on Under
Western Eyes continued to be diYcult, but Conrad worked hard to finish the
novel, finallycompletingitinJanuary 1910.No othernovelwouldbe sucha
trial for him. SuVering throughperiods of writer’s block, financial straits, and
physical and emotional illness, Conrad wrote the novelthat was closer to him
than any of his other works, a novel in which he would grapple with
problems of betrayal, revolutionary politics, and Russian autocracy. All of
these issues were close to Conrad’s personal experience, and spending so
much of his life immersed in that world of intrigue must have been like
reliving some of his childhood experiences. The end result was that he
suVered a complete breakdown that lasted some months. Conrad’s breakdown
may have resulted in more than just physical and emotional illness.
Many commentators see Under Western Eyes as the high-water mark of
Conrad’s artistic creativity, arguing that, except for The Shadow-Line, almost
all of what Conrad wrote afterwards was artistically inferior.
After his recovery, Conrad turned to ‘‘A Smile of Fortune,’’ which was a
return to his sea fiction. InJune, the Conrad family moved to CapelHouse in
Orlestone, a much more quiet area, and exactly what Conrad needed at the
time. In July, he wrote three essays for the Daily Mail (‘‘A Happy Wanderer,’’
‘‘The Ascending EVort,’’ and ‘‘The Life Beyond’’), which were later included
in Notes on Life and Letters.InAugust, Conrad’swork receivedrecognitionin
the form of a permanent government grant of £100 per year, and in September
he finished ‘‘A Smile of Fortune’’ and planned to work on other stories.
Around the same time, he completed ‘‘Prince Roman’’ and then began ‘‘The
Partner’’in October and ‘‘Freya of the SevenIsles’’in December. Both stories
were completed in March of 1911. In May, Conrad made a more concerted
eVort on Chance and finally broke throughhis writer’s block. In fact, he made
considerable progress once he returned to the novel. Another important
literary friendship began in July, when Conrad met Andre´ Gide, who would
become a life-long friend. During the summer, Conrad also worked on
A Personal Record, and the book version of Under Western Eyes appeared in
Octoberof 1911.Reviews were generally positive but often misunderstood the
novel, and once again sales were modest. Although Conrad remained more
popular with the critics than with the reading public, the groundwork for a
change was beginning, as his following in America and France was growing.
In late 1911, Conrad was making steady progress on Chance and supplemented
his income by selling some manuscripts to an American collector,
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
John Quinn, with whom he would become friends. A Personal Record was
published in January of 1912 to generally favorable reviews. Chance began to
be serializedinJanuary of 1912, and Conrad finished the novelin lateMarch
1912. About this time, he also wrote two articles for The English Review on
the Titanicdisaster, a subject close to his heart because of his background as a
sailor and also because the manuscript of ‘‘Karain,’’ which he had sold to
Quinn, wentdownwiththeship.InMay, Conradbeganworkonwhatwould
become Victory and continued to work on it steadily through the summer
and fall of 1912.
October 1912 seems to mark the beginning of a change in Conrad’s career.
His collection of stories ’Twixt Land and Sea, which contained ‘‘The Secret
Sharer,’’ ‘‘A Smile of Fortune,’’ and ‘‘Freya of the Seven Isles,’’ was published
and sold better than any of Conrad’sprevious books. The collection was also
well received by the critics. Most commentators point to the publication of
Chance as the beginning of Conrad’s financial success, and it certainly is,
but ’Twixt Land and Sea was a clear precursor, and so between the publication
of ’Twixt Land and Sea and the money from the manuscripts he sold to
Quinn, Conrad’s financial situation was finally beginning to look up.
While continuing to work on Victory, Conrad wrote ‘‘The Inn of the Two
Witches’’ in late 1912, and the first part of 1913 was spent in working on
Victory and preparing the book version of Chance. In the summer of 1913,
Conrad made another intellectual friend in Bertrand Russell, who admired
Conrad’s works, and the rest of 1913 was spent largely on Victory.In
November, Conrad started ‘‘The Planter of Malata,’’ which he finished in
December, and shortly thereafter he wrote ‘‘Because of the Dollars,’’ which
was originally conceived of as part of Victory. The January 1914 publication
of Chance in book form marked the true turning point in Conrad’s financial
circumstances and popularity. The novel was fairly well reviewed, but
there werereservations.HenryJames was oneofthe firstto seriously criticize
the novel when he suggested that Conrad had prioritized form over content.
Meanwhile, Victory continued to grow, and Conrad finally finished it in
mid-1914.
In the spring of 1914, Conrad’s friend, Jo´ zef Retinger, a Pole living in
England, invited Conrad and his family to take a vacation in Poland. It was
now more than twenty years since he had seen his homeland and Conrad
quickly warmed to the idea. World War I broke out shortly after Conrad
arrived in Poland, however, and the trip turned out to be rather dangerous.
Because of Conrad’s British citizenship,he couldhave been imprisoned once
Austria and England declared war, but his Polish background and the fact
that he stayed in a relatively isolated region helped to keep him out of
Conrad’s life
trouble. Nevertheless, returning to England was by no means easy. Conrad’s
bouts of gout and Jessie’s nagging knee injury made travel diYcult. Furthermore,
in order for them to return to England, they had to travel through
hostile territories. After making their arrangements, the Conrads began their
return journey in early October, travelingfirst toVienna and then on to Italy.
Finally, finding sea passagefrom Genoa, they arrivedinEnglandinNovember.
The journey was both mentally and physically fatiguing and left Conrad ill
upon arriving.
In early 1915, Conrad had been talking about taking up the long-neglected
The Rescue,butitwouldyetbe sometimebeforehewouldcompleteit.Atthe
same time, he began work on a short novel, The Shadow-Line, which he had
planned a number of years earlier and which many commentators feel to be
Conrad’s finest work written after Under Western Eyes. In February 1916,
Conrad’s collection of short stories, Within the Tides, was published and
included ‘‘The Planter of Malata,’’ ‘‘The Partner,’’ ‘‘The Inn of the Two
Witches,’’ and ‘‘Because of the Dollars.’’ It is often considered Conrad’s
weakest collection. Nevertheless, the book was well received and sold well.
Clearly, Conrad’s reputation was now such that his books could expect good
reviews and good sales. Victory was published in book form in March and
following on the heels of Chance’s success, its sales were also strong. Today,
the novel has many supporters and also an equal number of detractors, but
when it was first published the book’s detractors were few.
Meanwhile, Conrad finished The Shadow-Line in mid-December, a novel
based in part upon Conrad’s own experience in obtaining his first command
and a story of that imperceptible movement from youth to adulthood.
Conrad’s writing in the early part of 1916 proceeded even more slowly than
it had the previous year with only ‘‘The Warrior’s Soul’’ to show for his
eVorts. Later that year, Conrad met Jane Anderson, a young and attractive
woman who would become the object of speculationby some biographers as
to whether she and Conrad had an aVair.Itis impossible to know for certain,
but they were certainly mutually attracted.
All this time,WorldWarI was raging. Conrad’s stance toward the war was
ambivalent; having seen too much of life and being too skeptical, he certainly
could not get caught up in jingoism.At the same time, though, he felt loyal to
his homeland and to his adopted country, both of whom were significantly
aVectedbythe war. Conrad’s actual activities surrounding the wareVort were
limited to some maritime war maneuvers. In the fall of 1916, he served as a
kind of guest observer of naval activities, visiting shipyards, watching target
practice, and taking short voyages oV
the coast of England, as well as going
up for a short flight in a reconnaissance plane. His short story ‘‘The Tale’’
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
seems to have resulted from those activities. In addition, Conrad wrote two
essays related to his experiences: ‘‘Flight’’ and ‘‘The Unlighted Coast.’’
‘‘Flight’’ was later to appear in Notes on Life and Letters. Like so manyothers
at home, Conrad did not remain untouched by the tragedy of the war. In
early 1917, Conrad’s friend the poet Edward Thomas was killed, and some
time later Borys suVered shell shock after being gassed. InMarch of 1917, The
Shadow-Line appeared in book form and was dedicated to Borys and the
otheryoung men who were becoming adults while fighting the war. The book
was again well received and solidified Conrad’s position as one of the most
important authors of his time. In July, Conrad appears to have begun
working on a novel that he had been thinking about for some time: The
Arrow of Gold. Apart from this he wrote only a few short pieces during all of
1917, prefaces to new editions of some of his works, as well as one for
Garnett’s book on Turgenev.
In November, Jessie’s knee condition became bad enough to require
further medical attention, and the family moved to London for her treatment.
During that time, Conrad had the chance to meet with many friends,
something he had missed at Capel House. Despite Conrad’s increased social
life, work progressed fairly quickly on TheArrow of Gold.Returning to Capel
House in February, Conrad continued working on The Arrow of Gold,
making good progress and completing the novel before they had to return
to London again in June for more treatment on Jessie’s knee. Shortly after
finishing the novel, Conrad wrote two more essays: ‘‘Well Done’’ and ‘‘First
News,’’ both of which later appeared in Notes on Life and Letters.Around this
time, Conrad once again turned his attention to TheRescue.Having returned
to Capel House in August, he spent the fall of 1918 working on The Rescue,
but in December he took time out to write ‘‘The Crime of Partition,’’ which
was also later published in Notes on Life and Letters. This essay, along with
others like it, shows an increased interest in political issues, particularly those
regarding Poland.
In early 1919, plans for a collected edition of Conrad’s works began to
move forward, and Conrad started writing a series of ‘‘Author’s Notes.’’ In
February, he also began to work in earnest once again on The Rescue.
In March, work on the novel was briefly interrupted when the Conrads were
forced to move to another house, Spring Grove. Meanwhile, The Rescue
sprawled, and work was again interrupted by illness and, briefly, by work on
another essay entitled ‘‘Confidence’’ (also published in Notes on Life and
Letters). After some twenty-three years, Conrad finally completed The Rescue
at the end of May, and that summer was spent revising it for book publication
and writing more ‘‘Author’s Notes’’ for the collected edition. Another
Conrad’s life
important development occurred that summer when Conrad sold the film
rights to his works for £3,080. This piece of good fortune, along with the
good sales of TheArrow of Gold, and similar expectations for TheRescue, put
Conrad in a very good financial situation. Certainly, since the publication of
Chance, Conrad’s finances had much improved, but increased expenditure
followed increased income, as he still tended to spend beyond his means.
The critical reception for TheArrow of Gold was not nearly as positive as it
had been for Conrad’s other books, and most later commentators have
concurred. Conrad’s letters of this time often reveal a tone of weariness and
the feeling that his abilities were past their prime. Later thatyear, the Conrads
decided to move yet again, this time to Oswalds in Bishopsbourne. For
several months, Conrad seemstohavedone littleifany writing.InNovember
1919, Conrad again took up a stage adaptation, this time of The SecretAgent.
Late that same month, the Conrads traveled to Liverpool for yet another
operation onJessie’s knee.It was hoped that theprocedurewouldbe successful,
but further operations were necessary before her condition improved
significantly. Over the next few months, Conrad continued to work on the
adaptation of The Secret Agent, finishing in March of 1920. Conrad also
continued to write more ‘‘Author’s Notes’’ for the collected edition. Around
this time, The Rescue appeared as a book, and its reception was much better
than that of The Arrow of Gold, a notable exception, though, being Virginia
Woolf ’s review.
In June, Conrad began work on his next novel; then tentatively titled The
Isle of Rest, the novel would later become Suspense. The book progressed
slowly through the summer, and in September Conrad and Pinker collaborated
on a film script version of ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz,’’ finishing it in October. The
manuscript is no longer extant, and it was never filmed. That same month,
Conrad wrote the last ‘‘Author’s Note’’ for the collected edition, and in
November he adapted another of his stories, ‘‘Because of the Dollars,’’ for
the theatre, but the work (Laughing Anne) was not staged. All this time,
Conrad made little progress on Suspense and once more he fell ill.
In early 1921, Notes on Life and Letters was published, and making slow
progress on Suspense, Conrad next attempted something he had never tried
before: he translated Bruno Winawer’s play The Book of Job from Polish into
English. However, the play was never staged. About this time, Conrad also
wrotean essay, ‘‘The DoverPatrol,’’ for TheTimes.In the fall, unable to make
headway on Suspense, Conrad laid it aside and began The Rover, but this
project, too, progressed slowly. The Rover was conceived of as a story, but as
had happened so often in the past, it grew into a novel. A great blow to
Conrad occurred in February 1922 when J. B. Pinker, Conrad’s agent and
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
long-time friend, died. Pinker had been patient with Conrad’s numerous
delays and requests for money, and although there was occasional friction
between them, Pinker was a loyal supporter and generous friend to Conrad,
and Conrad felt a great loss at Pinker’s death.
In April, work on The Rover picked up, and the novel was essentially
finished in June. In November, the stage version of The Secret Agent was
performed but was poorly reviewed and poorly attended. Later that month,
Conrad wrote an essay ‘‘Outside Literature,’’ the only writing he had done for
some time. By this time in his life, Conrad was expressing a great deal of
fatigue, and this feeling was directly related to his inability to write. In
Januaryof 1923, though, Conrad began working again in earnest on Suspense
and continued fairly steadily throughMarch, only taking time out towrite an
introduction for Thomas Beer’s biography ofCrane, along with a preface to a
new edition of Crane’s The Red Badge of Courage.
Having earlier been convinced by Doubleday to come to America to speak
andpromotehisbooks,ConradleftforNewYorkinApril.ArrivinginearlyMay,
Conrad remained in America a month, amidst a whirlwind series of readings,
interviews,meetings, andpublicadulation.AfterreturningtoEnglandinJune,
Conrad spent time recovering from the experience. In July, he wrote an essay
‘‘ChristmasDayat Sea’’andbeganworkagainon Suspense–but withlittleresult.
InAugust,Conradwrote anotheressay:‘‘The Torrens–APersonalTribute,’’ and
did not do any significant work again until November, when he wrote one of
his most important non-fiction pieces: ‘‘Geography and Some Explorers.’’ In
December, The Rover was published, and although it sold well, it was not
popular withthe critics.
In early 1924, Conrad still hoped to complete Suspense, but he made little if
anyprogress.InApril,hewroteaprefacetoacollectionofhis stories entitled
Shorter Tales. Also in April, Ford talked Conrad into publishing their collaborative
tale The Nature of the Crime in book form, and Conrad agreed to
write a preface for it, which he completed in May. About this time, Ramsay
MacDonald oVered Conrad knighthood, but he declined. Shortly afterwards,
Conrad began an essay entitled ‘‘Legends.’’ He made little headway, and it
would prove to be Conrad’s last work. On August 2 1924, Conrad experienced
chest pain and shortness of breath. Doctors came and thought that his
condition was not serious. He seemed better the next morning, but about
8.30 am he fell from his chair with a cry and died. He was laid to rest on
August 7 in Canterbury.
Chapter
2
Conrad’s
context
Wars, political uprisings, colonial rule and unrest, and the ebb and flow of
economic fortunes all play a part in the literature of the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. Important cultural issues, such as woman’s rights,
increased industrialism and mechanization, scientific and technological
advances, and the changing political climate were equally influential. Furthermore,
the literary, philosophical, and artistic movements of this period
directly relate to the literature that appeared. This chapter will outline these
contexts and showhow Conrad’sworks both influenced and were influenced
by them.
History
and
politics
Even more than most British novelists, Conrad was aVected not only by
important historical events in England but also by those on the continent.
Given his years inPoland,France,Russia and the Orient, Conrad’s experience
was far more cosmopolitan than that of most of his fellow novelists in
England. In particular, Conrad was significantly influenced by events aVecting
France, Poland, and Russia during the nineteenth and early part of the
twentieth centuries. These events would form the context for Conrad’s life
and also for much of his fiction.
In the case of France, the influence on Conrad appears in the setting for
several of his works and in their eVect on Poland’s political situation. From
the time of hisyouth, Conrad was especially interested inNapoleonicFrance.
Emerging from the turmoil of the French revolution of 1789, Napoleon
Bonaparte came to power shortly after the Brumaire coup of November
1799. Within a few years, he solidified his power and became absolute ruler.
Napoleon began his campaigns against France’s neighbors, first invading
northern Italy and defeating Austria in the Battle of Marengo. In 1802, he
negotiated theTreaty of AmienswithEngland, but the treaty was short-lived,
as both sides failed to abide by its terms, and by 1804 France and England
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
were at war again. Although defeated at sea in the Battle of Trafalgar in
October of 1805, Napoleon countered with a decisive victory a month later
against the Austrians (allies of England) in the Battle of Austerlitz. The
following year, France defeated Prussia in the Battle of Jena and the Battle
ofAuerstadt and then took on theRussian armyinFebruary of 1807, firstin
the BattleofEylau, whichresultedinadraw,and theninJuneinthe Battleof
Friedland, whichresultedinaFrenchvictoryanda treatywithRussia.Forthe
next several years, Napoleon consolidated his power and annexed a number
of territories, while the war with England took a turn in which both sides
tried to exert economic pressure on the other. In 1812, Napoleon embarked
on his disastrous Russian campaign. Although he had defeated the Russians
in the Battle of Friedland, invading Russia was a diVerent matter entirely.
Practicing a scorched earth policy of retreat, the Russian army deprived the
Frenchofthe abilitytoresupplyalongtheway,and althoughtheFrencharmy
occupied Moscow in October of 1812, they had little to show for it except
enormous losses. The famous ensuing retreat in the midst of the brutal
Russian winter cost Napoleon most of what remained of the nearly 600,000
troops who had begun the oVensive. Both ‘‘The Duel’’ and ‘‘The Warrior’s
Soul’’ chronicle the hardships of the retreating French forces. The failed
Russian campaign was the beginning of the end for Napoleon, who was later
defeated in the Battle of Leipzig in October of 1813 and finally beaten once
and for all at the Battle of Waterloo in June of 1815.
Suspense was to have been Conrad’s definitive fictional statement on
NapoleonicFrance,perhapsinsome waystheEuropeanequivalentofNostromo,
but age, illness, and fatigue rendered the unfinished novel only a fraction of
Conrad’s vision of it. Along with Suspense, The Rover, ‘‘The Duel,’’ and ‘‘The
Warrior’sSoul’’would usethefertilesoil ofNapoleonicFranceasthebasisfor
investigating the nature of the relationship between the individual and larger
politicalforces.
While France, particularly Napoleonic France, served primarily as a
setting and political backdrop for Conrad’s writings, Russia had a more
immediate impact on Conrad’s life and work. With the notable exception
of Under Western Eyes, Conrad did not use Russia as a setting for his works.
Nineteenth-centuryRussian historyand politics,however, hadagreat dealof
influence on Conrad, in particular, Russia’s interaction with Poland and
Russia’s revolutionary politics.
After the defeat of the French army under Napoleon, Russia became the
pre-eminent power on land for some forty years. Nicholas I, Tsar during
most of this time, was a strong defender of monarchial rule in the midst of
widespread democratic movements throughout Europe. With Nicholas’s
Conrad’s context
staunch defense of autocracy came an increasingly corrupt and entrenched
bureaucracy that expanded its role into all aspects of society and came to
symbolize the increasing distance between the people and the government, as
this bureaucracy became almost a machine-like entity, independent of the
people who ran it. Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War of 1853–6, however,
changed its position of power. Shortly before the end of the war, Alexander II
assumed the throne and began a series of changes with the purpose of
modernizingRussia, whichhe felt had become backward,resultinginRussia’s
defeat. The two most prominent changes were the abolition of serfdom and
the reformation of the judicial system. Other lesser reforms followed. Despite
these reforms, political unrest continued, with many people demanding
liberties akin to those enjoyed in the West. With government resistance to
such changes came increased revolutionary activity. In 1876, the Land and
Freedom party was formed, some of whose members favored terrorist tactics
to gain their ends. The People’s Will wing of the Land and Freedom party
split oV
in 1879, with the specific idea of pursuing revolutionaryforce, and in
1881 they succeeded in assassinating Alexander II. In 1891, a famine resulting
from poor crop-yield rejuvenated revolutionary activities, which continued
until the fall of the monarchy in 1917. Political upheaval marked this period
and resulted in numerous political assassinations, including the assassination
in 1904 of Vyacheslav Konstantinovich Plehve, Minister of the Interior. This
incident (as did the assassination of Alexander II) would serve as the basis for
Victor Haldin’s assassination of Mr. de P— in Under Western Eyes.
Russia’s rule of Poland would be of particular and immediate eVect on
Conrad’s life and works, butRussian autocracy, bureaucracy, andrevolutionary
politics would also be an important influence. In addition to Under
Western Eyes, several ofConrad’s other works consider the idea of revolutionary
politics and the governments they opposed, all modeled after the revolutionary
politics of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The most
prominent of these revolutionary camps were the Anarchists and the Socialists.
In Conrad’s works, all of his revolutionaries (except those in Nostromo
and ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’) are either Anarchists or Socialists.
AlthoughAnarchism’s origins can be tracedto earlier sources, it is largely a
phenomenon of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and largely
associated with the revolutionary politics of France, Italy, and Russia.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is often considered the founder of nineteenth-
century Anarchist thought. In such works as What is Property? (1840),
Proudhon considers the basic ideas that permeate Anarchist philosophy: that
social problems result from private property and political power. In particular,
Anarchists rejected the concept of a centralized state and instead argued
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
for much smaller regional forms of governance. Proudhon influenced a
number of other political thinkers, one the most important of whom was
Mikhail Bakunin, who had been exiled fromRussia because of his revolutionary
activities. One of the significant diVerences between Proudhon and
Bakunin, however, was their methodology. While Proudhon advocated a
gradualist and peaceful transition to a stateless, propertyless society, Bakunin
advocated any approach by which he could bring about such a change,
particularly favoring the violent overthrow of governments. In the end,
Bakunin was the more influential of the two, and his methods later became
a common tool for many Anarchists. Although various strains of Anarchism
existed, Bakunin’s violent revolution was perhaps the most influential
and resulted in numerous political assassinations in the latter part of the
nineteenth century.
Anarchism and Socialism had some important similarities, particularly in
their view of capitalist economics and the issue of property. Nevertheless,
significant diVerences existed as well, and in the 1870s a major split arose.
Despite their diVerences, however, various revolutionary wings of the Socialist
movement advocated methods akin to those of the violent wings of the
Anarchist movement, and the political assassinations carried out, particularly
by the Russian Socialists, were remarkably similar to those carried out by
their Anarchist counterparts. Like Anarchism, Socialism had its origins in
earlier thought, and, also like Anarchism, it is essentially a nineteenth-and
twentieth-century phenomenon.Again, aswith Anarchism, one can point to
the rise of capitalist economics and the industrial revolution as primary
causes for its emergence. The primary points upon which the Anarchists
and Socialists diverge lie in the role of government and the role of private
property. Anarchists rejected strong, centralized government and the concept
of private property. In contrast, some Socialist groups proposed a strong,
centralizedgovernment and limited privateproperty.Evenso, distinguishing
between the main tenets of Anarchism and those of Socialism is not always
easy. Some Socialist camps urged for complete nationalization of property
and industry, while others advocated a more selective approach. Similarly,
some Socialist camps advocated a strong central government, while others
urged for a more disperse form of government.
Several figures have been credited with the origins of Socialist thought in
the nineteenth century. In France, for example, Henri de Saint-Simon and
Franc¸ois-Marie-Charles Fourier argued for early Socialist ideas. Saint-Simon
saw the capitalist economic system as fostering an extreme individualism that
he believed would eventually destroy the social order, while Fourier felt that
the competition inherent in capitalist economics was its primary drawback.
Conrad’s context
Other early French Socialists include E´ tienne Cabet, Louis Blanc, Louis-
Auguste Blanqui, and Proudhon. (Proudhon’s inclusion here emphasizes
the common origins of Anarchism and Socialism.) Of these early Socialists,
Blanqui was the closest to the revolutionaries who appear in Conrad’s works
and is noted more for his revolutionary activities than for his revolutionary
thought. Despite the contributions of these and other individuals, Socialism
is linked primarily to the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their
Communist Manifesto (1848) appeared in the same year as the general
democratic uprising that spread across much of Europe. Citing both the
capitalist and the class systems as the causes of social problems, they advocated
a classless society in which workers rather than industrialists would be
rewarded for their labor.
Socialist thought in the nineteenth century engendered a variety of important
movements. One of the more significant was the populist movement
in Russia. Lead by Alexandr Herzen, the populists looked to the peasant
communities as a model for a Socialist society and hoped to foster a
widespread peasantrevoltinordertobring about social change.While many
of Herzen’s followers argued for a peaceful, evolutionary approach to social
change, focusing on educating the population and disseminating political
propaganda, others lost faith in the possibility of a peasant uprising and
broke away, urging direct terrorist attacks instead. In this more radical
Socialism, the lines between Anarchism and Socialism blur considerably. It
was these radical Socialists, along with other Socialists with similar ideas,
such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party, who were responsible for most of
the assassinations and terrorist activities that occurred in Russia at the time.
Conrad used the revolutionary politics of this period as important
raw material for a number of his works. Thus, revolutionaries and Anarchists
appear prominently in The SecretAgent, UnderWestern Eyes, ‘‘The Informer,’’
and ‘‘The Anarchist.’’ And although Nostromo and ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’ are set
in South America, their revolutionary politics diVer little from those in
Conrad’s European political works.
Even more than French and Russian history and politics, the influence of
Poland’s history and politics was paramount to Conrad’s development as a
writer. AlthoughConradwrote little that directlyrelates toPoland, the events
that impinged on Poland’s fate during the nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries aVected Conrad both directly and indirectly, and they consistently
and subtly make their way into all of his best works.
After the third partition in 1795, Poland did not exist as an independent
entityfor123yearsbutwasdivided amongPrussia,Austria,andRussia.Witha
long cultural tradition,Polesremained strongly nationalistic and periodically
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
revolted against foreign control, particularly Russian control. The two most
prominent revolts occurred in 1830 and 1863. Beginning in Warsaw in
November, the revolt of 1830 soon became widespread and was not finally
put down until September of 1831. Harsh reprisals followed, and Russian
rule became even more restrictive. One of those involved in the revolt was
Prince Roman Sanguszko, whom Conrad claims to have met as a boy and
whose experience Conrad would fictionalize in ‘‘Prince Roman.’’
Conrad’s family andrelatives lived primarilyinRussian controlledPoland.
Beginning around 1861, conflicts arose between the Polish people and their
Russian rulers. Demonstrators in Warsaw fought with Russian troops, with
some of the demonstrators dying in the conflict. Afterwards, seeking to
control the Poles, the Russians appointed Aleksander Wielopolski to head
the Polish government. Wielopolski, though, was enormously unpopular,
and the Whites (the more moderate opposition) and the Reds (the more
radical opposition) both began underground operations against Wielopolski’sgovernment
and againstRussian rule.TheseoperationseruptedintoafullscaleuprisinginJanuaryof1863.
TheRussians eventuallyputdowntheuprising
in the fall of 1864, capturing and executing the leader of the Reds, Romuald
Traugutt.Intheyearsafter therevolt,thePolesonceagainexperienced strong
reprisals.Many were executedor exiled,hadtheirlandsconfiscated, orsuVered
other repressive measures.
The results of the 1863 uprising were particularly disastrous for Conrad.
His father’s political activism led to the family’s exile and the eventual death
of Conrad’s parents. Other relatives were either killed or imprisoned. These
events, as well as the repressive measures implemented in the aftermath of the
rebellion, aVected Conrad’s view of Russia and also colored his view of
revolution, revolutionaries, and politics in general. Throughout his life,
Conrad remained suspicious of all political activity, and his dark, skeptical
outlook on the world can be traced to his early experiences in Poland and
Russia.
In addition to the consequences of the 1863 uprising, the convoluted
political alliances in Europe left Poland with little hope of help from sympathetic
neighbors, such as France and England. Because of concern over
Prussian and Austrian strength, France and England strengthened ties with
Russia. Consequently, with Russia as a political adversary to Prussia and
Austria, and countries such as France and England acting as allies to Russia
and opponents of Prussia and Austria, Poland was in eVect caught between
these larger political struggles. Although France and England may have been
perfectly content to condemn Austrian and Prussian control of Polish territories,
they could not do so without tacitly condemning Russian control of
Conrad’s context
Polish lands as well. This complex political climate also contributed to
Conrad’s pessimistic outlook for Poland’s future, since it looked as if Poland
would be forever caught between powerful opposing forces.
Poland’s fate in some ways resembled and was indirectly aVected by
another phenomenon occurring about this time: the new imperialism. From
about 1875 until the beginning ofWorldWarI,Western countries engaged in
an unprecedented race to divide up the non-Western world. Colonial activities
had been ongoing since about 1500 – but never with such speed,
competition, and insatiability. In addition to such traditional colonial powers
as Spain, England, France, the Netherlands, and Portugal, new Western
nations entered the fray, such as Italy, Belgium, Germany, the United States,
and others began acquiring colonial territories. By the beginning of World
War I, approximately 85 per cent of the world was under Western control.
The result was that tensions among competing nations increased and further
complicated the already complex political climate in Europe.
Poland was indirectly aVected by these activities since the competing
colonial powers were also among those who controlled Polish territories or
who were either allied with or against those powers. In a more symbolic way,
though, the new imperialism related to the Polish question in that, like the
conquered peoples of European colonies, the Poles had seen competing
European nations divide and conquer their territory. Thus, criticism of
Poland’s situation became more diYcult because of widespread support for
essentially the same practice elsewhere. Conrad found himself right in the
middle of all of this activity. Since he had begun his maritime career in
the 1870s and spent most of it in the service of colonial endeavors in one
capacity or another, he was greatly influenced by the eVect that the new
imperialism had on Poland’s fate. Much of his time was spent in Southeast
Asia, experiencing first hand the role of the conquering European nations in
the non-European world. Furthermore, Conrad’s briefer experiences in Africa
and South America should not be discounted, in that they both aVected him
and resulted in no fewer than five literary works. The majority of Conrad’s
fictional writings are set in the colonial world, and, had Conrad not been part
of that world, his fiction would have been drastically diVerent. Conrad’s
experience also allowed him to look at colonialism much more objectively
than could many of his contemporaries. Along with his first-hand experience
in the non-Western world, Conrad had other unique perspectives that
allowed him to look at the colonial process diVerently from his contemporaries.
His own background was not unlike that of the colonized peoples he
encountered. Conrad was a Russian subject and grew up in an occupied
country, and although his experience under Russian rule was diVerent in
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
many ways from that of non-European colonial subjects, it was also similar
in many ways. This unique background allowed him to see colonialism
through the eyes of both the colonizers and the colonized.
The end of the new imperialism coincided with the outbreak of World
WarI,an event whichwouldhaveadirect impacton ConradandonPoland’s
fate, which had begun to occupy more of Conrad’s eVorts than it ever had
before. Although Poland’s dilemma was always in the background of Conrad’sworks,
after 1914he tookdirect stepsto addressthe situation.Withthe
victory of the Russian Revolution and the defeat of Austria and Germany
in the war in 1918, a new Polish state emerged from the wreckage of World
War I. During the war, Conrad wrote three essays concerning the Polish
situation and actively lobbied on behalf of Polish independence.
In addition to the war’s direct aVect on Conrad through his interest in
Polish independence, he was personally aVected by it through the death or
injury of those he knew. Unlike many of his fellow writers, Conrad did not
experience a profound disillusionment as a result of the war – primarily
because his disillusionment had solidified long beforehand. As a consequence
of his experiences as a child and as a young man, Conrad had long held a
profoundly skeptical view of the inviolability of civilization and the perfectibility
of humanity.Nevertheless,WorldWarIdidreinforce Conrad’s already
dark view of the world.
Although Modernist literature is often characterized as being relatively
isolated from political, historical, and cultural events and as focusing instead
on the individual, Conrad’s works run an important middle course, as he
consistently focuses on the individual – but always in the midst of political,
historical, and cultural forces.
Cultural
issues
Since the late eighteenth century, England had been moving increasingly
rapidly away from an agrarian economy and toward an industrial economy.
By 1850, half of England’s population resided in cities, and a large percentage
was associated with industry. Within a few years, large industrial cities
appeared throughout England and, despite the resulting prosperity, wealth
remained in the hands of a few. The industrial revolution brought with it
numerous problems, such as poor infrastructure, housing, sanitation, and
transportation, as well as extensive environmental pollution. It also brought
poor working conditions, low wages, and long working days. Safe working
conditions were not seen as a priority, and thus serious injuries were not
Conrad’s context
uncommon.With unionization strongly discouraged, workers had few rights,
and because of a surplus of cheap labor, they had little choice but to accept
whatever terms employers oVered. Conrad did not write novels of social
conscience. Nevertheless, born in 1857, he lived through more of the rise of
the industrial age than did most of his contemporaries. More important for
Conrad’s works, though, was the side eVect of industrialization, that is the
profound increase in the role of technology in society and in the work place.
With this increased role came increased mechanization, alienation, and dehumanization.
The isolation of the individual in the modern world was a
favorite topic of Conrad, and his characters often depict one as ultimately
alone in the world.
Along with England’s increased industrialism and mechanization, women’s
inequality was a prominent issue of the time. Concerns such as women’s
property rights, women in the workplace, and women’s suVrage were hotly
debated. During the nineteenth century, women gained various victories in
their struggle for equality, but change was slow. The issue of women in the
workplace was a crucial aspect of the woman question, and there were two
parts to this problem. The first was that ideally a woman was supposed to
marry and become a selfless caregiver to her children and husband. She
should work only if she could not marry and had no other alternative.
Unmarried women whose families were not wealthy, however, found themselves
in a precarious position. For working-class women, employment
options were limited to becoming servants or factory workers. For middle-
class women, the options were even more limited: they could become governesses,
schoolteachers, or companions. Later in the nineteenth century,
middle-class women could sometimes do secretarial work or perform certain
factory jobs. At no point, though, could they compete with men for clerk
positions or other more prestigious and better-paid occupations.
Conrad brings intohis fictionthe questionofawoman’splacein societyin
various ways. In ‘‘Heart ofDarkness,’’ for instance, the women are ‘‘out of it.’’
They inhabit a place in society away from the harsh realities of the man’s
world. This resembles the traditional nineteenth-century view of women
occupying and providing a sanctified home, removed from the corrupting
influence of the world of men. On a more general level, issues of women’s
rights appear in Chance, for instance, in which Conrad’s narrator, Marlow,
presents Mrs. Fyne as a staunch feminist and clearly disapproves of her views,
while at the same time showing that Flora de Barral’s plight results largely
because sheisawoman. Similarly,in The SecretAgent,Winnie marriesVerloc
solely for the security he represents because, as a woman, she has no other
viable employment options. The issue of women also enters Conrad’s writing
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
in his audience. From the outset, commentators have considered Conrad to
be a man’s author and have seen his reading public as consisting primarily of
men. Recently, some critics have suggested otherwise and argued that in fact
Conrad always considered women to be part of his primary audience. Much
of the evidence for this view has to do with the fact that much of the reading
public consisted of women. Furthermore, Conrad’s works of his later career
in particular, with their prominent elements of love and romance, were
clearly directed at a female reading public.
Perhaps the single most important cultural issue of the latter part of the
nineteenth century, though, was the nature of Western civilization itself.
Europeans had long held that their view of the world was pre-eminent, a
world view based upon transcendent truths and sanctioned by God. The
nineteenth century, however, saw this idea come into question, and throughout
the century, traditionally held truths came under scrutiny. At that time,
the Western world view would be challenged seemingly on all fronts and at
breakneck speed. In the 1820s, Charles Lyell began observing geological
formations and wondering about what he saw. The standard view, based on
theological teachings, was that the earth was roughly 4,000 years old. What
Lyell saw, however, caused him to question such a figure. His Principles of
Geology (1830–3) would become a revolutionary work in geology and in
scientific inquiryin general, resultinginareassessmentof the earth’s age. The
work of Charles Darwin would prove even more revolutionary. In the 1830s,
Darwin took a voyage aboard TheBeagle on a mission of scientific discovery.
He stopped at the Galapagos Islands oV
the coast of South America, and in
this geographically isolated region, he noted interesting variations among the
animal life there. The result of these discoveries eventually grew into his
theory of natural selection, in which he posited that individuals within a
species compete with one another for shelter, food, breeding opportunities,
etc. and that consequently those individuals best able to compete are those
most likely to survive and pass on their traits to their oVspring. It would be
over twentyyears after hisreturnfrom the Galapagos Islands, though, before
Darwin would publish his findings in his landmark work The Origin of
Species (1859). Darwin’s theory, of course, challenged commonly held ideas
regarding the origin of the earth and of human beings. Beginning with the
famous confrontation betweenT. H.Huxley and Bishop SamuelWilberforce,
this issue would be debated and would become one of the more significant
challenges to contemporary thinking about the nature of the universe.
Challenges to traditional views of the world arose not only in the field of
science. Various other fields of intellectual study also presented challenges to
such thinking. Alternatives to capitalist economics as well as to class structure
Conrad’s context
and centralized systems of government presented challenges to the way
Europeans had usually conceived society to exist.Furthermore, the discovery
of such phenomena as non-Euclidian geometry and relativist physics argued
for the indeterminacy of things – a stark contrast to the traditionally held
view of a world of transcendent truths and certainty. Finally, increased
contact with the non-Western world through the opening of Japan in
1854 and the new imperialism brought Westerners into greater contact with
non-Western society, philosophy, culture, and art. And for some, such contact
providedviable alternatives to traditionalWestern culture and society.
For generations, most Westerners had viewed their way of looking at the
world as the only one possible, a view evolving out of Christian theologyand
ultimately based upon absolute truths. Consequently, they saw Western
culture’s advanced technology and civilization as validating theirworldview,
with all other ways of looking at the world appearing inferior, backward, and
wrong. However, the challenges to such Western views that appeared in the
nineteenth century brought into question fundamental assumptions about
the nature of the world and the nature of the universe. In this way, the
moorings of Western civilization began to erode, and the very idea of
absolute truths came under scrutiny. The eVects of this cultural climate
profoundly influenced the world in which Conrad wrote.
Philosophical
milieu
The major philosophical debate that would have a direct aVect on Conrad’s
writing was Positivism and the various responses to it. Conrad also seems to
have been familiar with the works of Arthur Schopenhauer, and his ideas
appear to have influenced Conrad’s thinking.
During the nineteenth century, scientific activity and discovery exploded
exponentially. Science made perhaps moreprogress during this century than
it had during the previous twenty centuries combined, including some of
the most important scientific discoveries ever made: Michael Faraday’s
work in field theory; Hermann von Helmholtz’s, Julius Robert Von Mayer’s,
and James Prescott Joule’s work on the conservation of energy; Lyell’s work
in geology; Darwin’s work in biological evolution; Augustin-Jean Fresnel’s
work with light theory; James Clerk Maxwell’s and William Thompson’s
work in electricity and magnetism; John Dalton’s theory of atoms; Theodor
Schwann’s and Matthias Schleiden’s cell theory; Louis Pasteur’s and Robert
Koch’s work with germ theory; along with the work of numerous others all
occurred during or shortly before the nineteenth century. These discoveries
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
resulted not only in greater scientific knowledge, but also in greater prestige.
Consequently, for many, science had achieved a place that had previously
been reserved only for religion, and people gained unprecedented confidence
in science’s ability to provide certainty.
One result of these scientific discoveries was that many traditionally held
truths came under scrutiny, another was science’s influence on the philosophy
ofthe time. Throughthe workofJeremyBentham,Auguste Comte, John
Stuart Mill, and those who followed them, such as Herbert Spencer, Cesare
Lombroso, Hippolyte Taine, Ernest Renan, G. H. Lewes, Emile Durkheim,
Leslie Stephen, and many others, the increased prestige of science and the
increased confidence people placed in it resulted in Scientific Positivism, a
school of thought that proceeded upon the premise that all knowledge could
be determined byemploying the scientific method. As a result, many disciplines
adopted scientific methodology as their primary means of inquiry.
Nor were the arts immune from this influence: Realism and Naturalism
were direct products of the rise of science, their primary assumptions and
techniques being basically scientific in nature.
Not all thinkers accepted thePositivist model.As early asS renKierkegaard
and as late as the early twentieth century and beyond, a number of thinkers
questioned Positivism. Wilhelm Dilthey, Edmund Husserl, Friedrich
Nietzsche,Henri Bergson, and others questioned thewisdomof employinga
scientific model to explain all phenomena, even human beings and human
social activity. Like these contemporaries, Conrad felt that any system that
sought to explain all phenomena was suspect, and although he respected
science he rejected the all-encompassing Positivist model. For example, in
Victory,LordJim,The SecretAgent,‘‘HeartofDarkness,’’ and elsewhere Conrad
questions the ability ofscience and facts to provide certainty. In Victory,Heyst
comes to realize that human relationships not facts provide fulfillment in life.
In Lord Jim,Marlow feels that only through understanding a fact’s subjective
context is knowledge perhaps possible. Conrad’s questioning of Scientific
Positivism is even more clear in ‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ and The Secret Agent.
In ‘‘Heart ofDarkness,’’Marlowpresents the Belgian doctor who measures the
heads of his patients as a fool, and in The Secret Agent, Conrad ridicules
Positivism when Comrade Ossipon draws conclusions aboutWinnieVerloc’s
psychologybased upon her facial features.
In addition to Scientific Positivism, Conrad was familiar with and influenced
by the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer’s primary
contribution to the history of philosophy is his The World as Will and
Representation (1818). Influenced by Immanuel Kant, particularly Kant’s
ideas of noumena and phenomena, Schopenhauer argued that the physical
Conrad’s context
world with which human beings interact is merely a representation of reality
andnotrealityitself.HereferstoWillastherealitythat human beings cannot
apprehend as phenomena. Largely, this Will is the will to be, the desire to
exist. Will, however, can never be fully satisfied except through its no longer
desiring what makes it what it is, in other words, by no longer desiring to
exist; hence, the Will can only lead to despair because it desires to be
something it cannot be, that is a desire to exist that does not desire to exist,
and furthermore because for much of the phenomenal world theWill to exist
can only be at the expense of others’ Will to exist. Therefore, this world can
only be one of misery. For Schopenhauer, two possible solutions exist to
escape from such misery. A temporary solution is through art, in which one
can detach oneselffrom theWill fora timeby sharingin art’srepresentation
of the world of ideas. The only permanent solution to the world’s misery,
though, is through cultivating such an awareness of the suVering of existence
that one loses all wish for existence and satisfaction.
Schopenhauer’s generally pessimistic outlook, that human existence is
primarily an existence of pain in which human beings constantly search for
ways to alleviate the pain, manifests itself in Conrad’s works in a number of
ways: fromWinnie’sview in The SecretAgent that ‘‘things don’t bear looking
into verymuch’’ (138) to the absurdity of events that wreck Razumov’s life in
UnderWestern Eyes. Similarly, Conrad’s recognition of the need for temporary
shelter from the truths of an indiVerent universe resembles Schopenhauer’s
idea about the need for respite from the pain of human existence.
Movements
in
art
and
literature
Anydiscussion of movements in art and literature should beginby recognizing
that Conrad resisted being associated with any particular literary
movement because he felt that it restricted and compartmentalized a writer’s
work. Nevertheless, one can still discuss certain tendencies in Conrad’s work
in light of the literary and artistic movements of his time, particularly
since his own work was often instrumental in developing some of these
movements. Among the literary and artistic movements of Conrad’s time,
Modernism was the most important to his work.Modernism is known for its
formal experimentation. In fiction, this experimentation took a number of
forms: achronological narratives, multiple narrators, stream-of-consciousness
narration, fragmented narratives, inconclusive endings, unreliable narrators,
and so on. Of course, some authors had previously experimented with
certain of these techniques, but the Modernist period was the first in which
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
experimentation took such a prominent position. There were several
reasons for this phenomenon. In one sense, Modernist authors were simply
representing in form what they perceived in fact, that is the fragmented
forms these authors employed were meant to resemble the fragmented
world they encountered. In another sense, though, the formal experimentation
is a truly radical change in the history of the arts. Although all
movements in the arts in some way react against earlier movements,
form has typically been fairly constant. Sonnets, for instance, by William
Wordsworth, Francis Petrarch, William Shakespeare, and Percy Bysshe
Shelley may diVer in the ideas they express and how they express them,
but their one shared feature is that they employ the sonnet form. The
Modernists, though, not only reacted against the conception of art espoused
in previous movements, but they also reacted against the forms
themselves. Of course, a certain amount of formal experimentation had
been developing for some time. Wordsworth’s insisting that the language of
poetry should be the language of the average person and Walt Whitman’s
advocating free verse in poetry are just two examples. Nevertheless, the
widespread view of making things new, as Ezra Pound demanded, was
unique to the Modernists. A more profound reason, however, lies at the
heart of these changes, that is that the formal changes mirrored the social
changes. In a society in which even the long-held idea of the pre-eminence
of Western civilization came into question, the pre-eminence of its artistic
forms similarly came into question.
Modernism was not just concerned with formal experimentation,
though.Modernist writerswerejustas concerned withlargerphilosophical
issues. Modernist literature is often known for its insistence on an indiVerent
universe, forits alienationof theindividualinthe modernworld, forits
indeterminacy of knowledge, and for its emphasis on conceptions of the
self. All of these come out of the atmosphere of uncertainty concerning
traditionally held truths that arose in the nineteenth century. As a result,
Modernist writers were forced to confront an indiVerent universe in which
no transcendent truths were available and yet still try to make sense of
human existence.
Conrad is known primarily as a Modernist writer, and he certainly fits in
withthemovement.In fact,hemaybethe firstModernist.Hisworks clearly
evidence both the Modernist experimentation with form and the Modernist
view of the world.Formal experimentation appears as early as his first novel,
Almayer’sFolly, with the flash back and flash forward techniques he employs.
This experimentation becomes much morepronouncedin many oftheworks
from his middle period on. The shifts in time and space that occur in Lord
Conrad’s context
Jim and even more drastically in Nostromo are examples of the Conrad’s
experimentation,asarethemultiple narratorsheemploysinrelatingthetales
told in ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ ‘‘Typhoon,’’ and elsewhere. On the other hand,
the alienation, solitude, and epistemological uncertainty that so many of his
characters experience speaks of Conrad’s Modernist world view, as they
consistently try to find meaning and order in human existence while recognizing
that such is never transcendent but merely contingent – merely a
means to stave oV
chaos, anarchy, and nihilism.
For Conrad, this position is particularly diYcult given his age and maturity
at the time he began his literary career. Although the philosophical subtextofhisworksis
thoroughlyModernist, Conrad was still largelyaproduct
of the nineteenth century. Consequently, a tension exists between his realization
of a Modernist world and his wish that it were otherwise. This attitude
appears prominently in the way various characters see the need to recognize
the ultimate absurdity of human existence and the indiVerence of the universe,
but at the same time to be able to shelter themselves from such
knowledge.
Other literary and artistic movements that provide a context for Conrad’s
work include Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, and Impressionism.
Romanticism wasareaction againstNeoclassicism and Enlightenment thinking.
The movement began in the late eighteenth century and rejected the
Neoclassical focus on reason, rationality, and order and instead emphasized
individualism, emotion, subjectivity, and imagination. Romanticism is also
closely associated with German Idealist philosophy, particularly through
Coleridge’s borrowing of Idealist concepts. Sometime during the nineteenth
century, however, the movement became popularized, and an important
distinction must be made regarding Romanticism and popularizedRomanticism.
PopularizedRomanticism largely came out of theRomantic idea of the
individual striving to go beyondlimitations and the strains of Idealist philosophy
contained in Romanticism. The result was a diluting of the original
Romantic ideas, and Romanticism began to be associated with, for example,
idealistic codes of behavior (as opposed toIdealist philosophy) and adventurous
activity (as opposed to individualism and striving beyond limitations).
Consequently, the term ‘‘Romantic’’ came to takeonpejorative connotations
and wasroundly criticizedby manyin the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.
Romanticism, though, is perhaps the most interesting movement in relationship
to Conrad’s works. He was clearly influenced by some of the Polish
Romantic writers of the early nineteenth century, such as Adam Mickiewicz
andJulius Slowacki, as well asbyhisown father’sRomanticwritings.Having
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
largely disappearedbythe time of Conrad’s birth, Romanticism was certainly
long since rejected by the movements corresponding to Conrad’s literary
career. Romanticism is nevertheless an important element in much of Conrad’s
fiction, and his relationship to it is ambivalent. On the one hand, as
evidenced in Lord Jim, Conrad is critical of actions and ideas that are
motivated by Romantic impulses. At the same time, though, Conrad in part
approves of such impulses. In other words, the idealism that Jim expresses is
illusory, but it also causes him to strive beyond the mundane. It is what
provides him with hope. And so Conrad was both attracted to and repelled
by Romantic idealism. Furthermore, Conrad clearly approved of a code of
honor and duty, but again his attitude towardthem is mixed in that although
he approved of such ideas, he did so not because he believed they resulted
from transcendental ideals but rather because they provided for ordered and
useful social interaction.
Realism and Naturalism were both reactions against Romanticism and
were both movements born out of the philosophical and social issues of
the nineteenth century, particularly the rise of science. Rather than representing
an idealized viewof theworld,Realism triedto represent reality asit
actually existed. For subject material, Realist writers focused more on observation
than imagination, and they avoided exaggeration, poetic language,
and melodramatic conventions. They wished to represent events and objects
that any observer could recognize, ideally removing the variable of human
subjectivityintheprocess.Inthisway,allreaderswereto experiencethe same
thing, just as the scientist expects the results of a scientific experiment to be
the sameregardlessof who performs it.Naturalism even more clearly looked
to science as its model, as is evidenced in E ´ mile Zola’s reliance on the
scientific methods of Claude Bernard to construct his naturalistic fiction.
Naturalism advocated conforming as closely as possible to the natural world.
Naturalist novels were typically novels of social conscience that dealt with the
seamier side of civilization and the social problems of the modern world.
They tended to work strongly from a Social Darwinist view of the world,
that is they saw Darwin’s idea of natural selection to be as active in the
human world as it was in the animal world.Hence, heredityand environment
were primary determinants in the outcome of an individual’s life and
circumstances.
Although Conrad clearly attempted to represent a real rather than ideal
world in his fiction, his work largely reacts against the premises of Realism
and Naturalism. The formal experimentation in his work stands in sharp
contrast to the chronological and non-individualist fiction of Realism. Since
Conrad focused strongly on the individual and since his works consistently
Conrad’s context
represent all phenomena from the external world filtering through human
consciousness,Realism’s attempt to remove subjectivityfrom therepresentational
process runs directly counter to Conrad’s representation of reality. In
the case of Naturalism, Conrad’s work is even further removed. In the first
place, his novels could not be considered novels of social conscience, as were
so many Realist and Naturalist novels. Instead, Conrad’s focus was on the
struggles of the individual to find meaning in human existence.Furthermore,
Conrad’s suspicionof scienceasthe sourceforcertaintyinthe modernworld
would not allow him to accept the primary tenets ofRealism andNaturalism.
Finally, Naturalism’s insistence on the almost all-encompassing influence of
environment and heredity on an individual’s fate runs counter to Conrad’s
view of the individual’s relationship to the world.
In contrast, Impressionism was a particularly important movement to
Conrad’s work. Begun in the visual arts in the 1860s and 1870s, Impressionist
painters focused on atmosphere, point of view, sharp juxtaposition of colors,
innovative use of light, and the use of evocative brush strokes. They also
sought to represent the interaction between human consciousness and the
objects of that consciousness. Much of this interaction appears as sensory
perception, particularly visual perception, but, with literaryImpressionism at
least, it would be wrong to limit this process solely to visual perception or
even to sensory perception in general. Indeed, literary Impressionists represented
a broadspectrum of objects of consciousness: physical objects, human
subjects, events, ideas, space, and time.
Impressionism is sometimes misunderstood as the solely subjective responses
of the artist to the object, but the relationship is really more of an
exchange between artist and object. The representation of the object may
show an object altered by the artist’s impression of it, but the object is not
wholly created by the artist. In other words, Impressionism runs a middle
course between Realism and Surrealism. It seeks to represent a contextualized
experience such that an object cannot be experienced except at a
particular place, ataparticulartime,by aparticularperson. Impressionists
weresimplyrepresenting theideathat allphenomenafilterthroughhuman
consciousness.
In the case of Conrad, this relationship between subject and object appears
in a variety of ways. In The Shadow-Line, for instance, the new captain views
his first command diVerently from the way others view it. While others may
see merely a mode of transport, the new captain sees the consummation of
his many years’ work. Similarly, in The Secret Agent, the time that Winnie
experiences during Verloc’s murder is altered by the context of that event:
Winnie experiences the murder to have taken a much longer time than the
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
clock registers. In both cases, as is true elsewhere in his works, Conrad
represents phenomena being filtered through the consciousness of his characters,
such that subject alters object, object alters subject, and both are
influenced by the context in which they appear.
The numerous important events, issues, and other happenings of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries require one to consider them in any
discussion of Modernist literature, and because of his unusually diverse
experience, one must certainly consider them in any discussion of Conrad’s
works.
Chapter
3
Conrad’s
early
period
Conrad’s early periodis dominatedbynarratives about theMalay Archipelago
and the maritime profession. For this reason, Conrad was (and often still is)
thought of as a sea writer. Conrad’s early writings serve as a writer’s apprenticeship
of sorts. Often thought to be more uneven than the works of his
middle period, these works nevertheless have much to recommend them, and
when they were published they were well received by the critics.
Almayer’s
Folly
Almayer’s Folly is Conrad’s first novel, and the first of a reverse trilogy – that
is the first written but the last in the chronology of events that take place in
The Rescue, An Outcast of the Islands, and Almayer’s Folly. The novel deals
with Almayer,a traderinaremote regionof theMalay Archipelago, who has
married his mentor Tom Lingard’s adopted Sulu daughter with the promise
that one day he would become Lingard’s heir. By the time the novel opens,
though, Lingard has lost his money and disappeared to Europe, and
Almayer’s wife has retreated back to her cultural roots. Almayer’s one hope
is of becoming rich and leaving the East to return to Europe with his
daughter, Nina. To this end, he has engaged Dain Maroola, a Balinese ruler,
to help search for rumored gold. Unbeknownst to Almayer, Nina and Dain
Maroola have fallen in love. Before Maroola and Almayer can begin their
search for gold, however, the Dutch authorities arrive to arrest Maroola for
seeking to overthrow Dutch rule. Maroola flees the Dutch, running oV
with
Nina. When a slave girl tells Almayer what has happened, he intercepts the
couple and tries to convince Nina to return. When she refuses, Almayer
returns home a broken man, slipping into opium addiction and eventual
death.
Almayer’sFolly wasconsideredaRomance whenit was published,andtoa
certain extent it is, but Conrad plays with the Romance form. Unlike most
Romances, the novel does not end happily, nor is the love interest of the
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
typical sort or the exotic setting romanticized. Instead, Conrad turns the
Romance form on its end, creating an entirely new kind of Romance. More
than its form, though, the novel’s content radically diverges from previous
Romance fiction. Conrad presents the East as a place of squalor and political
intrigue in which the Malayans outwit and ultimately destroy the European
Almayer, who is overmatched in this environment and appears wholly ineVectual.
Furthermore, Almayer’s daughter,Nina, chooses herMalayan heritage
over her European heritage. These events bring into question the
Western view of the world, a trend that would become commonplace in so
much of Conrad’s subsequent fiction to follow. In Almayer’s Folly, Conrad
further undermines Western values through Almayer’s Eurocentrism toward
non-Westerners and throughtheWesterners’prejudicial treatment of the half
European Nina. In the end, the novel posits the possibilitythat Nina is better
oV
with DainMaroola and herMalayan heritage thanwith Almayer livingin
Europe. Furthermore, the erosion of Almayer’s position in Sambir as well as
the erosion of his great unfinished house, dubbed ‘‘Almayer’sFolly,’’ becomes
representative of an eroding European presence and power in colonial territories.
In this way, Conrad’s novel takes a politically radical turn in doubting
the ascendency and role of Western civilization in the non-Western world.
This is not to suggest that Conrad was devoid of European prejudice toward
non-Westerners in the novel. In fact, one of the particularly interesting things
about the novel is the way that the novel questions European assumptions
about the non-Western world while at the same time perpetuating those same
assumptions.
In addition to the novel’s commentary on these larger social and political
issues, Conrad sets an example that he continues throughout much of his
work as he focuses on issues that aVect individual lives. In other words, the
larger social, political, and philosophical issues that Conrad addresses intertwine
with the lives of individuals, demonstrating the individual consequences
of such issues, and always individual lives take precedence. In
Almayer’s Folly, Conrad focuses on the lives of Almayer and Nina. Almayer’s
struggle is particularly poignant since he places all of his hope in the idea of
growing wealthy and leaving the East with his daughter. His primary problem,
though,is thathe livesin the future –inavisionof luxuryinEurope.As
a result, when he discovers that Nina intends to run oV
with Maroola, his
world collapses.With his future existence destroyed,heis leftwith nothingin
the present, and despairs. Almayer is ill-equipped to deal with reality and
graphically reveals the illusory nature of dreams. On the other hand,
Nina struggles to fit into one or the other of the cultures that she inherits.
With a Malayan mother and a European father, she is heir to both cultures
Conrad’s early period
but fits into neither. Brought up to be European by her father, she is not
accepted in that community and eventually rejects her European heritage
for her Malayan heritage. Thus, in addition to a choice that would have
surprisedmostofConrad’sreaders,Ninademonstrates a strengthof character
and will as she chooses her own fate rather than having others
determine it for her. In this way, she shows herself to be the dominant
force in the novel, a unique situation for a woman, particularly a non-
Western woman. Consequently, the conclusion to Almayer’s Folly is truly
radical, as Conrad completely undermines the conventional social norms
that appear in Romance fiction.
An
Outcast
of
the
Islands
An Outcast of theIslands is the second in Conrad’sMalaytrilogy.Again set in
theMalay Archipelago, the action of the novel occurs before that of Almayer’s
Folly and focuses on Peter Willems, the outcast of the title. As a youth, he
meetsTom Lingard, who acceptsWillems asaprote´ge´.With Lingard’s help,
Willems eventually rises to the position of clerk for Hudig & Co. Willems
embezzles funds from the company to pay gambling debts and slowly repays
the money. Just before he finishes repaying the sum, Hudig discovers what
Willems has done, and fires him. Willems returns home, is berated by his
half-caste wife, Joanna, and leaves. Shortly thereafter, Lingard chances upon
Willems and decides to give him another chance, bringing him to the remote
trading outpost in Sambir where Almayer lives. Lingard has developed a
trading monopoly because he knows a secret route to Sambir. While there,
Willems tires of the situation. He meets Ai¨ssa, the daughter of a former
Brunei leader, and, feeling that he has been wronged by his wife, Hudig,
Lingard, Almayer, and his entire community, Willems takes up with her and
betrays Lingard’s secret passage to Syed Abdulla, an Arab trader, thus breaking
Lingard’s monopoly.Returning again to Sambir, Lingardgoes toWillems,
whom Abdulla has cast oV
now that he is no longer useful, and confronts
Willemswith his betrayal, butWillems blames his actions onAi¨ssa’s influence
over him. Ignoring this excuse, Lingard refuses to have anything further to do
with him and refuses to help Willems leave Sambir. Shortly afterwards, wary
ofWillems’s proximity, Almayer arranges to haveWillems’swife and son sent
to him from Almayer’s trading post where Lingard had left them. After they
arrive and Ai¨ssa realizes that Willems is married and wants to leave her, a
struggle ensues in which Willems tries to take his gun from Ai¨ssa but is shot
and killed.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Although An Outcast of the Islands is a remarkable book, many would not
consider it to be one of Conrad’s best novels.It is not an artistic masterpiece,
but it is remarkable because of its innovations. In the novel, Conrad questions
colonial attitudes, undermines the Romance tradition, and creates
perhaps the first true anti-hero in the British novel.
Ashe didin Almayer’sFolly,in An Outcast of theIslands, Conrad inverts the
traditionalRomance novel. The noveldoes not end happily, the exotic setting
isnot idyllic,andAbdulla,notWillemsorLingard,isthevictorattheendof
the novel. Conrad further undermines theRomancebychoosing an anti-hero
for his main character. Willems is an anti-hero not only because he acts
unheroically but also because he is thoroughly despicable, and yet he is the
center of the novel’s events and of the novel’s focus.
More than simply to invert the Romance form, though, Conrad creates
an anti-hero in order to investigate the nature of moral rectitude. To this
end,Willems’s betrayals are particularly important.In his history of betrayal,
Willems is guilty of one of the most significant crimes in Conrad’s world.
Because Conrad refuses to posit absolute truths, moral rectitude is based
upon the mutual acceptanceof communal moralsby its members. The ideas
of community and solidarity are important to Conrad because they provide
for physical and psychological comfort. When an individual betrays others,
the sole thread holding the individual to society is cut. Because Willems
betrays so many bonds (employer/employee, husband/wife, etc.), Lingard
says to him, ‘‘You are not fit to go amongst people’’ (275), and thusWillems
mustbeartheroleof outcast.Furthermore,Willemsrefusestoacceptresponsibility
for his actions and consistently blames others for his failings. Rather
than blaming himself for getting fired, he blamesHudig. Rather than blaming
himselfforthe ensuing argumentwithhiswife,Joanna,he blamesher. Rather
than blaming himself for betraying Lingard, he blames Ai¨ssa. Finally, when
he betrays Ai¨ssa, intending to leave her and return to his wife, he again
justifies himself by saying that Ai¨ssa ‘‘is sin’’ (278). In each case, he sees
himself in the right, wholly justified in his actions.Willems’s death at the end
of the novelis simply thephysical manifestationof his already existing moral
state.
In additiontothe moral issues that Conradinvestigates,aprominent issue
in the novel is colonialism, as Conrad questions Western assumptions about
race. Willems becomes Conrad’s vehicle in investigating these issues. Besides
his self-absorption and belief in his own merits, Willems believes that he
merits privileged status because he is European, and he tries to trade upon
his position as a white man. He denigrates Joanna, Ai¨ssa, and the Malayans
in general. Conrad writes that Willems believed that he would be able
Conrad’s early period
‘‘to tyrannize good-humouredly over his half-caste wife, to notice with
tender contempt his pale yellow child, to patronize loftily his dark-skinned
brother-in-law’’ (3). Willems enjoys his privileged status:
That family’s admiration was the great luxury of his life. It rounded and
completed his existence in a perpetual assurance of unquestionable
superiority. He loved to breathe the coarse incense they oVered before
the shrine of the successful white man;the man that had done them the
honour to marry their daughter, sister, cousin. (3–4)
Willems’s superiority,however,is illusory.Hiswife’s family may pay homage
to him, but the morally bankrupt life thatWillems leads undercuts his status.
In addition, his moral state undermines his racial superiority and also the
general feeling of the time concerning the absolute superiority of whites over
non-whites. Willems is in no way superior to the non-Westerners in the
novel. Both the Westerners and non-Westerners recognize this fact; once
Abdulla no longer needs Willems, he quickly discards him as dangerous
and unhealthy.
Conrad further investigates the question of colonialism through the attitudes
of both the Western and non-Western characters toward colonial
activity. Allof theWesterners who interactwith the non-Westerners consider
them with either contempt or condescension. Almayer, for instance, considers
his wife to be a degraded individual and has little regard for any of the
other non-Westerners he encounters. At one point, Almayer complains that
Lingard jeopardized him by helping some Chinese: ‘‘And then three months
afterwards you go and do that mad trick – for a lot of Chinamen too.
Chinamen!’’ (162). On the other hand, Lingard’s attitude is more condescending
than contemptuous, but he nevertheless sees himself as superior to
non-Westerners. Conrad relates that Lingard ‘‘had been living with Malays so
long and so close that the extreme deliberation and deviousness of their
mental proceedings had ceased to irritate him much’’ (222). Later, he says to
Babalatchi, ‘‘If I ever spoke to Patalolo, like an elder brother, it was for your
good – for the good of all’’ (226). What we discover during the course of
the novel, though, is that the Westerners seem to behave no better than the
non-Westerners. Babalatchi points this out:
You think it is only your wisdom and your virtue and your happiness
that are true. You are stronger than the wild beasts, but not so wise.
A black tiger knows when he is not hungry – you do not. He knows the
diVerence between himself and those that can speak; you do not
understand the diVerence between yourselves and us – who are
men. (226)
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Later, Babalatchi berates Lingard, saying, ‘‘I have learned much wisdom this
morning. There are no men anywhere. You whites are cruel to your friends
and merciful to your enemies – which is the work of fools’’ (240). The
primary argument behind the colonial endeavor was that non-Westerners
would benefit from the dissemination of Western values and ideas. In the
novel, though, the opposite seems to be the case.Not only do non-Westerners
not benefit fromWestern values,Western civilization actually becomes detrimental
to them. In showing this, Conrad takes a subversive stance against the
popular Western view of colonialism. In the example of Willems’s moral
degeneracy and in the example of theWestern role in theMalay Archipelago,
Conrad demonstrates that status is not bestowed by one’s heritage but rather
by one’s moral action.
The
Rescue
The Rescue is adiYcult novel to place in Conrad’s career. Begun in the late
1890s, it was not completed until some twenty-three years later and was
finally publishedin 1920.Asaresult,it couldbe considered partof Conrad’s
later career or part ofhis earlier career. Since Conrad wrote a good deal of the
novelduring his early period and since TheRescue constitutes the third in the
Malay trilogy and many of the issues in the novel resemble those Conrad
addressed earlier rather than later in his career, the novel will be considered
here alongside the other two in the trilogy.
The Rescue takes up again the scene of Almayer’sFollyand An Outcast of the
Islands, but the action of the novel occurs chronologically before that of An
Outcast of the Islands and deals extensivelywithTom Lingard asayoung man.
Because Hassim, a local Malayan ruler, had saved Lingard’s life, Lingard
repays the debtby savingfrom deathHassim, his sister, anda fewof Hassim’s
followers after Hassim has been ousted as ruler by a rival party. Having
spirited Hassim and his followers away, Lingard deposits them at a place
called the shore of refuge with the idea of later helping Hassim reclaim his
position. Lingard spends several years preparing arms and allies for the
attempt. This process requires delicate and tenuous alliances among several
parties, and just as the preparations are coming to fruition a sailing yacht
called the Hermit, owned by a Mr. Travers, becomes stranded in the vicinity
of the alliance’s headquarters. As a result of a number of misunderstandings,
brought about by the mutual mistrust of seemingly all parties involved, two
of the men from the yacht are captured as hostages. Lingard negotiates their
release into his custody, but in the meantime Carter, who has been left in
Conrad’s early period
charge of Lingard’s brig, feels threatened and sinks some of the Malayan
boats. This act brings about a crisis of trust among the various parties. One
faction attempts to capture Lingard’s store of arms and trade that are meant
forthe struggletoreinstateHassim.Unabletoresistand unableto communicate
with Lingard, who has gone to try to repair the damaged alliance,
Jo¨rgenson, Lingard’s assistant, blows up the store of arms, taking with him
those who had sought to capture the Emma where the arms had been stored.
In the process,Hassim and his sister, who had been captured as hostages, are
also killed.
With the exception of Nostromo, The Rescue is the longest of Conrad’s
novels. Given the time it took for Conrad to write it, one might expect The
Rescueto be one of Conrad’s most polished products, but that is not the case.
The Rescue has its moments, and it deals with some important issues in
Conrad’s thought, but it also lacks the polish and power of some of his other
works. Nevertheless, the novel merits discussion and gains in value when
considered alongside the other novels in the trilogy and alongside Conrad’s
other early Malay fiction.
The issue that permeated Conrad’s early works, that is the relationship
between East and West, is one of the major ideas that Conrad considers in
The Rescue. Hassim’s actions toward Lingard and Lingard’s actions toward
Hassim are generous and free from racial prejudice. Both individuals care
deeply for one another, and each goes to considerable eVort and risk for the
other’s benefit. That said, though, The Rescue may be Conrad’s most pessimistic
investigation into the possible accord between Westerners and non-
Westerners because, despite Hassim’s and Lingard’s feelings toward one
another, they cannot break through the inherited racial barrier that ultimately
divides them. In the end, Lingard chooses to aid Travers and company
rather than Hassim. In fact, Conrad further emphasizes this barrier by
presenting Hassim as eminently worthy of Lingard’s aid and Travers and
company as eminently unworthy of his aid. This barrier is even more
apparent among the other Westerners and non-Westerners that people
the novel. The non-Westerners, even Hassim, do not understand or trust
those aboard the Hermit. They do not know why they are there, and they do
not understand Travers and company’s relationship to Lingard. This is why
they are suspicious and take the steps they do, capturing the two men as
hostages, then later taking Hassim and his sister hostage, and finally attempting
to capture the Emma. At the same time, the Westerners are equally
distrustful of the non-Westerners. They see them as intriguing and inferior,
which is one reason why Carter sinks the Malayan boats. As a result, what
amounts to several misunderstandings that probably couldhave been cleared
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
up had they occurred among one group or the other become disastrous when
they occur between the Westerners and non-Westerners.
This situation is further exacerbated by the fact that the diVerent factions
in both groups mistrust one another. For instance, Lingard’s mistrust of
Travers and his crew (except Mrs. Travers) causes him to withhold his
intentions from them; this results in Carter’s sinking the boats, which heralds
the downfall of the tenuous alliance Lingard had constructed. Similarly,
Jo¨rgenson’s mistrust of Mrs. Travers causes him to withhold the meaning
of the ring she is to carry to Lingard warning of Hassim’s capture, and Mrs.
Travers’s mistrust of Lingard causes her to withhold giving the ring to him,
the final blow that brings down Lingard’s house-of-cards alliance. In the
same way, the mistrust and competition among the several Malayan factions
causes them to take more resolute steps than they would otherwise have
done. This pervasive atmosphere of mistrust results in a situation hopelessly
doomed from the outset.
The tragic events of The Rescue, though, go beyond the confines of the
novel. Conrad is also commenting on the nature of communal relationships
in general. In many ways, for Conrad, the plight of Lingard’s alliances is the
plight of humanity. In a world without absolute truths, communal ties exist
not according to eternal laws but solely according to mutual trust, a trust as
tenuous as the alliances Lingard cultivates. Ultimately, any human community
can survive only through the mutual trust of its members. The fate of
Lingard’s alliances is the fate of all human communities when mistrust
pervades.
Linked to the mistrust in The Rescue is the idea of betrayal. All of the
novel’s action has betrayal at its core. A faction of Hassim’s people rebels
against him, betraying him and wresting his rule from him. Similarly,
Lingard’s betrayal of Hassim in coming to the aid of the Hermit and
Mrs. Travers’s betrayal of Lingard by withholding the ring, along with
the perceived betrayals of Lingard by Daman when he takes Mr. Travers
and Mr. d’Alcacer captive and of Daman by Lingard when Carter sinks
Daman’s boats, all combine to bring about the disaster that ends the hope
of restoring Hassim to power and results in the death of Hassim, Jo¨rgenson,
and so manyothers. In this way, The Rescue graphically represents the results
of betrayal. In the end, Lingard recognizes that he has betrayed Hassim by
protecting the members of the Hermit.Toa certain extent, though, Lingardis
placed in an extremely diYcult position. He feels a moral obligation toward
Hassim and his followers, but at the same time racial (and perhaps to a lesser
extent moral) obligations require him to protect the passengers of the
Hermit. It seems that he cannot remain loyal to both parties.
Conrad’s early period
If the situation were as simple as this, one could simply pity Lingard for
finding himself in an impossible position in which he cannot avoid betraying
one party or the other. Conrad, however, further complicates the situation by
introducing the romance between Lingard and Mrs.Travers. Thereader then
must wonder how much Lingard’s actions are influenced by his conflicting
loyalties and how much they are influencedbyhis attraction to Mrs.Travers.
In adding this twist to the problem, Conrad questions Lingard’s motivation
and moral rectitude, but he also introduces the issue of women in the world
of men. So often in Conrad’s works, when women enter the male world they
tend to disrupt a tenuous communal alliance. For Conrad perhaps, because
communal alliances exist only by mutual agreement among members, any
outside element inevitably disrupts a delicate balance. As a result, women
tendto posea threatto the male communityConrad establishes. Certainly,in
The Rescue, Mrs. Travers’s arrival in Lingard’s male world brings disastrous
consequences.
The
Nigger
of
the
‘‘Narcissus’’
The unfortunately titled The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus’’ (titled Children of the
Sea in the first American edition) is Conrad’s best work of his early period. In
fact, wereit not for the book’s title, it undoubtedly would be read more often
than it is currently. At one time, it was one of Conrad’s most frequently read
books. In part because of its brevity, in part because of its adventure qualities,
and in part because of its literary qualities, the novel used to attract a good
deal of attention.
The novel begins in Bombay with the crew assembling for their voyage
back to England aboardthe Narcissus.JamesWait,a sailorof African descent,
is the last crew member to arrive. Shortly after setting sail, Wait claims to be
sick and unable to perform his duties. The crew is unsure whether he is
actually ill or merely feigning illness. The men alternately cater to Wait and
resent him, and he in turn tyrannizes over them. The other disruptive
element among the crew is Donkin, who never accepts responsibility for
his actions and consistently tries to shirk his duties.Whilerounding the Cape
of Good Hope, the ship encounters a powerful storm and is nearly sunk.
Duringthe storm,the menmakea desperate attempttorescueWaitfromhis
cabin and barely escape with their lives, for which trouble Wait berates them
for taking so long. The ship eventually rights itself, and they continue on
their voyage. At one point, Podmore the evangelical ship’s cook, attempts to
save Wait’s soul, after which Wait, frightened by the implication of his
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
impending death, declares himself fit for duty. Having had to put up with
Wait claiming illness the entire trip, Captain Allistoun refuses to accept this
change of heart. His decision leads to a near riot, incited by Donkin, during
which Donkin throws a belaying pin at Allistoun and then tries to hide his
act.Afterthisact,therestofthecrewshun Donkin.AlthoughWaitmayhave
been feigning the extent of his illness, it turns out that he actually has been
ill. In fact, he eventually dies of his illness and is buried at sea, at which point
a breeze appears, and the ship makes the last leg of its trip to England. They
arrive in England, and as the crew disembarks the bond that had held them
dissolves.
The narrative technique of the novel has evoked much commentary
becauseof its instability.Whether thisisa mistake or deliberateis impossible
to tell, but, regardless, an incongruity appears between what at some times
seems to be an omniscient third-person narrative and at other times a first-
person narrative. The narrator often reveals information that only an omniscient
narrator could know, but at other times the narrator clearly appears to
be an active participant in the events of the novel. Most readers find such
instability awkward and see it as an artistic flaw.
Despite the narrative instability, the novel ushers in important issues that
would inform all of Conrad’s most significant work. In particular, Conrad
deals with the concepts of human isolation and human solidarity. The novel
is a paean to the community aboard ship, a community that provides
comfort and safety for its members but also a community that resembles
the plight of humanity everywhere. On board the Narcissus, Conrad creates a
microcosm of the world as a whole. The men are isolated from the rest of
humanity, and they exist in the midst of the hostile environment of the sea.
In order to survive, they must establish their own community. The men
appear to be mostly strangers to one another and must find a way to interact.
During their voyage together, they recognize that they must cooperate in
order to survive.In particular, the men must work together during the storm;
otherwise, they would certainly perish. Their plight serves as a paradigm for
humanity in general in which Conrad believes human beings need to work
together to deal with the world around them. Confronted by a universe
indiVerent to the fate of humanity, Conrad sees human solidarity as the only
means to protect oneself from dangers and perhaps the only means of
making sense of the world.
In addition to the physical cooperation necessary to save the men’s lives
during the storm, social cooperation provides them with psychological
comfort.Inorderto avoidhumanisolation,themenmustforma community,
a community that will give meaning to their existence and provide
Conrad’s early period
companionship in their lives. In particular, Conrad demonstrates the
necessity of cooperation for the well being of the community by showing
what happens when that cooperation is absent. Donkin demonstrates this
lack most clearly. His selfish behavior during the storm leaves the men
shorthanded and puts all of them in greater danger as a result, and his
continued selfishness threatens the community of the crew by causing
dissension among them and between the crew and the oYcers. Finally,
when threatened with exposure, Donkin seeks to repudiate his role and
instead triesto displace hisguiltontothe crew asawhole.Similarly,Wait’s
selfish behavior threatens the community, as he causes the men alternately
to support hisillnessand to begrudge hisremoval from the ship’sdaily
routine. He further threatens the community because he becomes a constant
reminder ofdeath,bothinhis continual claims thatheisdying(which
themen oftendonot believe) andinhis actual death.In each case,the men
are forced to confront their own mortality and the disquieting eVects of
those thoughts. With the graphic examples of Donkin and Wait, Conrad
eVectively causes his readers to recognize the tenuous nature of human
existence and to recognize the necessity of community for physical and
psychological survival.
In addition to the major themes of human isolation and solidarity, the
novel also obliquely considers questions of race. The importance of the
communal bond among the men is clear in the novel, but the fact that Wait
is of African heritage thrusts the men into something of a dilemma. On the
one hand, Wait must be included in the community of the ship, but on the
other hand, because of his heritage, he remains outside their larger social
community. The conflict between these situations causes a tension in the way
the men react toWait. They seek to protect him as they would anyother crew
member, even going so far as to risk their lives for him, but they also exhibit
an aversion to him, in part because he represents death to them but also in
part because of racial prejudice.
Tales
of
Unrest
Tales of Unrest is Conrad’s first collection of stories. It is a geographically
mixed collection with two stories set in the Malay Archipelago, two set in
Europe, and one set in Africa. As was often (but not always) the case with
Conrad’s short fiction, these stories are typically thought to have less literary
merit than some of Conrad’s other works, although they do deal with some
issues that are particularly important to Conrad.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
‘‘The Idiots’’is set in Brittanyand is the tale of the plight ofSusan Bacadou
and her husband Jean-Pierre in bearing four mentally challenged children.
WhenJean-Pierre attemptstoforceSusan sexuallyinordertotry to conceive
a normal child, Susan stabs him with a pair of scissors, killing him. Rejected
by her mother and believing she is being pursued by her husband’s ghost,
Susan flees toward the coast, where she falls into the sea and drowns. The
story is of interest for two reasons: its comment on women’s rights within
marriage and its introduction of narrative innovation. Conrad first broaches
the idea of the role of women in this story in which no mitigating circumstances
seem open to Susan for killing Jean-Pierre. Susan’s mother has no
sympathy for her plight, and presumably the local authorities would concur.
Society rejects Susan’s right to protect herself from her husband’s forcing
himself upon her. In regards to sexual matters, she is Jean-Pierre’s property
in the eyes of society, and although society may have been morally oVended
byJean-Pierre’s actions, he did nothing illegal. Conrad clearly sympathizes
with Susan and critiques a society in which she is not allowed to defend
herself.
Conrad’s narrative technique is also of interest in this story as he introduces
a technique that Ian Watt coined ‘‘delayed decoding.’’ Near the end of
the story, Millot sees the ground pull out from underneathSusan’s feet as she
falls into the sea, and only after a moment or two does he recognize that
Susan fell from an unmoving cliV. This narrative technique has two purposes.
First, it places the reader in the position of the character viewing the event so
that the reader experiences what the character does at the very moment that
character experiences it, thus providing a realism and immediacy to the
reader’s experience. Second, delayed decoding emphasizes the tenuous nature
of human perception, demonstrating that what one experiences filters
through one’s consciousness and hence is subjective and not objective.
Furthermore, by emphasizing the subjectivity of perception, Conrad calls
into question the certainty of knowledge obtained through perception,
and hence, because so much knowledge results from empirical experience,
by extension, this technique also calls into question the certainty of
knowledge in general. Delayed decoding appears again and again in the
course of Conrad’s career and becomes one of his most important narrative
innovations.
‘‘Karain’’ and ‘‘The Lagoon’’ are both set in the Malay Archipelago, and
both consider the issue of betrayal. ‘‘The Lagoon’’ is a storyabout a Malayan
man, Arsat, who runs oV
with the servant woman of a local ruler. He is
accompanied by his brother, and they are pursued by the ruler’s guards.
Arsat’s brother oVers to hold oV
the guards to give the couple time to prepare
Conrad’s early period
for the escape. Arsat is to wait for his brother, but fearful that there will not
be enough time for them all to escape, he leaves his brother to die. The story
is about the remorse Arsat feels for his betrayal. After the woman dies some
years later, Arsat is left only with his guilt. He chooses the woman over his
brother out of selfishness and in the end is left alone and isolated because of
his choice. Of further interest is that Arsat tells his tale to a European trader,
and in this tale, as occurs in so many others set in the Malay Archipelago,
Conradreveals the intersectionof theWestern and non-Western worlds. The
European trader is friendly with Arsat, but his condescension is clear. The tale
reveals Arsat’s guilt and passion, which transcend geographical and cultural
boundaries, but theEuropean does not see these. In this fact, Conradreveals
the myopia of the Western view of the non-Western world.
‘‘Karain: A Memory’’ is the more elaborate of the two tales. Like ‘‘The
Lagoon,’’ ‘‘Karain’’ considers the theme of betrayal and the relationship
between the Western and non-Western worlds. Also like ‘‘The Lagoon,’’
‘‘Karain’’ is one of Conrad’s earliest frame narratives, albeit a more sophisticated
one that anticipates Conrad’s later important frame narratives. In this
story,KarainhasbeentradingwithEnglishgun runnersinhiswaragainstthe
Spanish. One night, he swims to the English boat and asks for asylum in
England in order to escape the evil spirit that haunts him. Manyyears earlier,
the sister of Karain’s friend Matara ran oV
with a Dutch trader. Karain and
Matara spent many years and endured much hardship in tracking the
woman, determined to kill her and the Dutch trader in order to avenge the
family’s lost honor. In the process, Karain developed a strange obsession for
the woman, and when they discovered the coupleKarain killed Matara rather
than allow him to kill the woman. Karain believed that his elderly servant
keptMatara’sspiritaway,butwhenthe servantdiesKarainhasnoprotection,
and so he asks the English traders to take him away. The traders give him a
makeshift talisman made from a jubilee coin with a picture of Queen
Victoria. Karain takes this talisman and leaves believing that it will ward oV
Matara’s spirit. Like ‘‘The Lagoon,’’ ‘‘Karain’’ deals with how an individual
copes with his memory of betrayal. Unlike Arsat, though, Karain’s guilt
appears as a spirit that haunts him. Both carry the weight of their guilt,
however, and both remain exiles from their homes as a result of their
betrayals. In ‘‘Karain,’’ the intersection of Western and non-Western cultures
also plays an important role. First, when the Dutch trader disregards local
custom and runs oV
with Matara’s sister, he reveals his Western arrogance
toward non-Western cultures. More important, though, his actions ultimately
bring aboutMatara’s death andKarain’s haunting and exile. The English
traders exhibit a similar attitude. Like the European trader in ‘‘The Lagoon,’’
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
the English traders in ‘‘Karain’’ are condescending toward Karain, and as in
‘‘The Lagoon,’’ their inability to sympathize with the great guilt and fear that
Karain feels reveals their insensitivityand racial bias. As happens in so many
of the earlyMalay fictions, Conrad criticizesWestern attitudes of superiority.
‘‘The Return’’ has been roundly criticized, many commentators regarding
it as Conrad’s worst work of fiction, and Conrad himself seems not to have
regarded it highly. Despite the generally negative evaluations, the issue of
human connection in the modern world is worth noting in the story. ‘‘The
Return’’ begins with Alvan Hervey returning home from work one evening to
find that his wife of five years has left him for another man. Shortly
thereafter,however, hiswife, unabletogo through with her decision, returns
home. During their ensuing discussion, Hervey discovers that his wife has
returned solely out of fear of the social scandal. He further discovers that
human connection is crucial and that his wife has no connection for him or
anyone else. Realizing this intolerable situation, Hervey suddenly leaves,
presumably never to return.
‘‘The Return’’ marks a departure from Conrad’s earlier settings and characters
and shows his ability to work outside his experience in the East. More
important, though, the story presents a vision of indeterminacy, as Hervey
comes to realize, ‘‘Nothing could be foreseen, foretold – guarded against’’
(159–60). During the course of the story, Hervey’s preconceived notions
concerning the rectitude of Western civilized ideas are shattered, and so he
finally latches onto the one idea that he regards as a saving grace when he
thinks, ‘‘Faith! – Love! – the undoubting, clear faith in the truth of a soul –
the great tenderness ...Itwas what he had wanted all his life’’ (178). To
connect with another person provides hope for Hervey. This hope, however,
eludes him when he realizes that his wife ‘‘had no love and no faith for any
one. To give her your thought, your belief, was like whispering your confession
over the edge of the world. Nothing came back – not even an echo’’
(183). This discovery causes Hervey to despair, as he realizes that in the
modern world he is utterly alone. ‘‘The Return’’ has its weaknesses, but it
addresses in a significant way an issue that will occupy Conrad’s most
important works.
‘‘An Outpost ofProgress’’ is the most accomplished storyin this collection.
Drawn from Conrad’s own experience in the Congo, it explicitly questions
European colonial activities.‘‘An Outpost of Progress’’ has been compared to
‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ and they share many of the same elements, specifically
the moral degeneration engendered by isolation and the nature of the
dissemination of Western civilization. In addition, Conrad’s sustained irony
anticipates the controlled irony he will later display in The Secret Agent.
Conrad’s early period
In the story, Kayerts and Carlier take charge of a trading post in the heart
of the African jungle. They go there hoping to become wealthy through
trading ivory, but they also see themselves as ambassadors of progress in
propagating Western values. At one point in the story, in exchange for ivory,
Makola,Kayerts’s and Carlier’s assistant, sells into slaverysome of the African
workers at the station. Initially, Kayerts and Carlier are scandalized by the
idea, but eventually they cover up Makola’s action. Later in the story, while
the men fight over some sugar, Kayerts accidentally shoots and kills Carlier.
When Kayerts hears the company steamboat approaching the station, he
hangs himself.
Rather than becoming wealthy or becoming catalysts for progress, the men
become examples of moral and cultural degeneration, and far from being an
outpost of progress, the station becomes one of regress. From the beginning,
Conrad presents Kayerts and Carlier as ineVectual and incompetent, but
more than that, in the slave trading incident and in the sugar incident,
Conrad emphasizes the moral degradation of these ambassadors of Western
civilization.Removedfrom the strictures and support ofWestern civilization,
the men grow increasingly more uncivilized. Furthermore, in Europe, colonialism
was justified because the colonizers were disseminating civilized
progress to the uncivilized world, thereby benefiting the indigenous peoples.
Instead of bringing progress to the Africans, however, Kayerts’s and Carlier’s
presenceis detrimental, since therelationship between theEuropeans and the
local people deteriorates significantly during the course of the story. Even
more important, the local communityis devastatedbyMakola’s slave trading,
and the final statement of ‘‘An Outpost of Progress’’ unrelentingly indicts
Western colonial activity.
With the completion of Tales of Unrest, Conrad was ready to move on to
the next phase of his career, in which he would produce some of the finest
works of literature of the twentieth century.
Chapter
4
Conrad’s
middle
period
Conrad is best known for the writings of his middle period, which ranges
from approximately 1899 to 1911. This period was Conrad’s most productive
and has generally been seen as comprising his most artistically accomplished
works. Certainly, he wrote his most frequently read and frequently studied
works during this period.
‘‘Youth’’
and
Two
Other
Stories
‘‘Youth’’ is one of Conrad’s best short stories and is the first of four tales
(‘‘Youth,’’ ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ Lord Jim,and Chance) in which Charlie
Marlow serves as the chief narrator. The story is a frame narrative in which
Marlow tells his tale to several listeners, one of whom records the tale,
acting as frame narrator. Marlow tells his listeners about an experience he
hadsometwentyyears earlier.Hehadjustjoined thecrew as second mate
of the Judea, bound for Bankok with a cargo of coal. From the outset, the
journeyisbeset withdiYculties. They leave London forNewcastle tocollect
their cargo but encounter bad weather and arrive late. More delays occur,
including the Judea being hit by another vessel. Finally, setting oV
some
three months afterleavingLondon, the Judea againencountersbad weather
in the English Channel and begins leaking, forcing yet another delay of
severalmonthswhilethey awaitrepairs.After therepairs arecompleted,the
Judea finally sets oV
for its original destination. The ship encounters no
more problems until it gets near Java Head, when the crew discovers a fire
in the cargohold.Theyareforced topump waterinto theholdto try toput
out the fire. They believe they have succeeded, when the ship suddenly
explodes. A nearby mailboat attempts to tow the Judea, but the fire grows
worse, and the crew is forced to abandon ship. They escape in the lifeboats,
one of which Marlow commands. After watching the ship sink, the crew
members in the boats head for land. Many hours later, they reach land at
Conrad’s middle period
night. Marlow’s tale ends with his awakening the next morning to his first
view of theexoticEast.
Asthetitle suggests,thestoryconcernstheissueofyouthandthoseideasand
feelings associated with it. The story’s primary value is in the irony Conrad
achievesinhaving anolderMarlowrelate and commentuponhisactions and
feelingsasayoungman.Somecommentatorshave seenthestory asapaeanto
youth, andthe storyiscertainly that,asMarlowrecountshisyouthful exuberance.
The young Marlow’s excitement and wonder at what he experiences
resurrectpleasant memoriesinMarlow,hislisteners, andpresumablyConrad’s
readersaswell.EventheyoungMarlow’signoranceand nai¨vete´areremembered
fondly and evoke pleasant emotions in Marlow’s listeners. The tale and the
memory, though, are also bittersweet because they invoke a time and state of
mind and emotionthathavedisappearedintothepast,never toberecovered.
Furthermore, in the background of this tale of youth lies the inevitable
movement toward old age and death. Images of aging and death abound: the
aging captain, his aging wife, the aging first mate, the aging ship, even
Marlow’s aging clothes, and by the time Marlow tells his tale all are dead,
including his own youth: ‘‘youth, strength, genius, thoughts, achievements,
simple hearts – all die . . . No matter’’ (7).
Conrad evokes the wonder of youth as he narrates his responses to his
surroundings as a young man. The Judea’s motto is ‘‘Do or Die,’’ andMarlow
remarks, ‘‘I remember it took my fancy immensely. There was a touch of
romance in it, something that made me love the old thing – something that
appealed to my youth!’’ (5). When Marlow finally reaches land in the
lifeboat, he is filled with wonder:
And this is how I see the East. I have seen its secret places and have
looked into its very soul; but now I see it always from a small boat, a
high outline of mountains, blue and afar in the morning; like faint mist
at noon; a jagged wall of purple at sunset . . . We drag at the oars with
aching arms, and suddenly a puV
of wind, a puV
faint and tepid and
laden with strange odours of blossoms, of aromatic wood, comes out of
the still night – the first sigh of the East on my face. That I can never
forget. It was impalpable and enslaving, like a charm, like a whispered
promise of mysterious delight. (37)
The older Marlow tells his listeners, ‘‘But for me all the East is contained in
that vision of my youth. It is all in that moment when I opened my young
eyes on it’’ (42). However, Marlow remembers his first experience with the
East with a touch of sadness. He recognizes the nai¨vete´ of his view of the
world as a youth and can laugh at it, but he also feels regret:
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
I remember my youth and the feeling that will never come back any
more – the feeling that I could last for ever, outlast the sea, the earth,
and all men; the deceitful feeling that lures us on to joys, to perils, to
love, to vain eVort – to death; the triumphant conviction of strength,
the heat of life in the handful of dust, the glow in the heart that with
every year grows dim, grows cold, grows small, and expires – and
expires, too soon – before life itself. (36–7)
Marlow’s listeners also experience mixed emotions as they remember their
ownyouths, as the frame narrator concludes the story by saying, ‘‘our faces
marked by toil, by deceptions, by success, by love; our weary eyes looking
still, looking always, looking anxiously for something out of life, that while it
is expected is already gone – has passed unseen, in a sigh, in a flash – together
with the youth, with the strength, with the romance of illusions’’ (42); and
although this story contains none of the bitterness of old age, it faithfully
represents the nostalgia and sadness of a lost youth and a clear awareness of
an inexorable death.
‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ is a dark, densely packed, and slow-moving story
about a journey up the Congo River, in which Conrad investigates colonialism,
self-knowledge, and the groundingsofWestern civilization. The storyis
loosely based upon Conrad’s own experience in the Congo, and he notes in
the ‘‘Author’s Preface’’ that the story ‘‘is experience pushed a little (and only
very little) beyond the actual facts of the case’’ (xi). There is no doubt that
Conrad’s own experience in the Congo had a profound aVect on him; he is
reputed to have once told Edward Garnett, ‘‘Before the Congo I was just a
mere animal,’’ and it is this eVect that Conrad tries to transmit to his readers.
The storybegins with four men sitting on the deck of the Nellie, anchored
on the river Thames and waiting for the tide to change. Among them is an
unnamed frame narrator, who recounts the tale that Marlow tells them.
Marlow had been having trouble finding work when he finally got command
of a steamboat on the Congo river and sets oV
on his journey to Africa.When
he arrives at the company’s Outer Station, he finds a combination of waste
and decay. He leaves shortly thereafter for the company’s Central Station to
take command of his steamboat.Upon arriving,he finds his steamboat sunk
and is forced to wait several months for repairs, after which Marlow and the
others finally set oV
up river for thecompany’s Inner Station torelieveKurtz,
the station manager there. Just below the station, they are attacked by
Africans, during which Marlow’s African helmsman is killed. Expecting to
find the Inner Station destroyed, they are surprised to discover it intact.
Marlow meets the Russian there, a disciple of Kurtz, who confidentially
informsMarlow thatKurtz has takena seat as oneof the local deities among
Conrad’s middle period
the Africans and that he had ordered the attack because he did not want to be
taken back down river. Kurtz, who had been ill for some time, dies during
the return voyage, his last words being ‘‘The horror! The horror!’’ Marlow
also falls ill and barely escapes with his life, after which he is sent back to
Europe. BeforeKurtzdied,a subtlebondhaddeveloped betweenMarlowand
Kurtz, and Kurtz entrusted Marlow with some letters and papers. After
recovering from his illness, Marlow decides to return a thin packet of letters
from Kurtz’s fiance´e (his Intended). While visiting her, it becomes clear that
she knows only the idealistic Kurtz who set out for Africa, not the one who
was worshiped like a god. At one point, Marlow lets slip that he had heard
Kurtz’s last words.Upon learning this, the still grievingwoman demands that
Marlow tell them to her. After some hesitation, he tells her that Kurtz’s last
words were her name and then leaves. Marlow concludes by telling his
listeners that he could not bring himself to tell her the truth.
‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ is Conrad’s most well-known story, in which he
considers such significant issues as the nature of human existence and the
nature of the universe. The story is also Conrad’s first attempt to implement
fully the narrative methods with which he had been experimenting in his
previous fiction: frame narrative, multiple narrators, achronological narrative,
and delayed decoding. Conrad had already used frame narratives in
other stories, but in ‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ he expands the narrator’s role such
that a disparity arises between Marlow’s view of events and the frame narrator’s
(at least at the beginning of the story). These disparate views provide the
impetus for the story, but they also serve to present contrasting points of
view. This eVect is augmented by Conrad’s use of multiple narrators. He
would refine this technique in later works, but even in ‘‘Heart of Darkness’’
Conrad presents diVerent information from diVerent sources. Similarly, the
narrative chronology Conrad employs is unique. As early as Almayer’s Folly,
Conrad had experimented with narrative chronology, but not until ‘‘Heart of
Darkness’’ does he introduce a truly unique variation. The chronology of the
story is a direct indirection, in which Marlow appears to tell a chronological
tale but in fact does not. The narrative proceeds not according to the
sequence of events but according to the sequence of Marlow’s thoughts.
Almost invariably when Marlow mentions women, for example, it is not
when they actually appear in the story but rather when he happens to think
of them. Finally, Conrad had used delayed decoding in some of his earlier
works, and it appears prominently in ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ again in a
more fully developed form, when during the attack, for instance, Marlow
initially sees sticks flying about and only afterwards sees those objects
as arrows.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Conrad also returns to a fuller investigation of important ideas that he had
considered in his previous works. Early in the story, the frame narrator
comments on the famous adventurers and conquerors who had set forth
from the Thames. The narrator’s laudatory description of these past adventurers
causes Marlow to contrast contemporary England with the England
that the Romans encountered when they came to conquer it some two
thousandyears earlier. Thus beginsMarlow’s inquiry into the basic assumptions
about Western civilization of the frame narrator and the other men on
board, as well as those of Conrad’s reading public. At the time of the story’s
writing, England was the most wealthy and powerful nation on earth. It was
also the epicenter of Western civilization and represented the height of
civilized progress, and London, where the Nellie is anchored, was the pinnacle
of English society as well as the literal and symbolic source from which
civilized progress issued forth to the rest of the world. Marlow, however,
points out that to the conquering Romans the British would have been mere
savages and Britain a mere wilderness. In fact, Marlow’s description of the
England that theRomans would have encountered seems strikingly similar to
the description of the Congo that Marlow gives later in the story. Marlow
does suggesta distinction between theRoman conquerors and theEuropean
colonizers, arguing that the Romans’ rule ‘‘was merely a squeeze . . . They
grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got,’’ while of the
Europeans he says, ‘‘What saves us is eYciency – the devotion to eYciency’’
(50). Marlow concludes:
The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from
those who have a diVerent complexion or slightly flatter noses than
ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What
redeems it is the idea only. An idea at the back of it; not a sentimental
pretence but an idea; and an unselfish belief in the idea – something you
can set up, and bow down before, and oVer a sacrifice to. (50–1)
Thisseemingly contradictorystatementformsoneof thecritical cruxesofthe
story.Ifthe ‘‘conquest ofthe earth...isnot aprettythingwhenyoulookintoit
too much,’’ then can it really be redeemed? Does Marlow accept colonialism,
reject colonialism, or reject continental colonialismbut acceptBritish colonialismbecauseofits
‘‘devotiontoeYciency’’ and ‘‘unselfish belief in theidea’’?An
answer to this question becomes crucial in determining how one interprets
‘‘Heart of Darkness.’’ Before answering this question, though, one must first
determine what this ‘‘unselfish belief in the idea’’ is. Based upon what occurs
laterinthestory,it seemsthatthis‘‘idea’’istheidealisticgoalofimprovingthe
non-Western world through the dissemination of Western culture, society,
Conrad’s middle period
education, technology, and religion. Given Marlow’s treatment of the colonial
endeavor,asheexperiences it inAfrica,wecanonly concludethathe ishighly
critical of it. The more subtle nuances of this conclusion, though, are less
clear. Despite Marlow’s withering critique of colonialism, it remains unclear
whethercolonialismingeneralisunderattackoronly continental colonialism –
particularly Belgian colonialism. In other words, by insisting that colonialism
canberedeemed,Marlowleavesopenthepossibilitythathe exemptstheBritish
fromhisotherwiseunrelenting indictment.
Leaving this question aside, however, what remains is a clear criticism of
Western civilization as Marlow encounters it in Africa. The whole colonial
endeavor, at least as it was represented at the time, consisted of an uneasy
marriage between commercial colonial trade and an altruistic attempt to
improve African life, as Kurtz is quoted as saying: ‘‘Each station should
be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a centre for trade of
course, but also for humanizing, improving, instructing’’ (91). Even if one
grants the Eurocentric assumption that the non-Western world needed improving,
the diYculty of marrying such incompatible motivations as economicsand
education seemstohaveproventobebeyondthe abilitiesofeven
the most sincere colonizers. Invariably, the colonial endeavor ultimately
became one of exploitation, and this exploitation becomes prominent in
‘‘Heart of Darkness.’’ The public perception of colonial activities was one of
paternalism, as Marlow’s aunt demonstrates when she talks of Marlow’s
‘‘weaning those ignorant millions from their horrid ways’’ (59). Marlow
discovers, though, that the reality of the colonial experience in Africa is
anything but ‘‘humanizing, improving, instructing.’’ Marlow’s fireman best
exemplifies this problem:
He was an improved specimen; he could fire up a vertical boiler . . .
A few months of training had done for that really fine chap. He
squinted at the steam-gauge and at the water-gauge with an evident
eVort of intrepidity – and he had filed teeth, too, the poor devil, and
the wool of his pate shaved into queer patterns, and three ornamental
scars on each of his cheeks ...He was useful because he had been
instructed; and what he knew was this – that should the water in that
transparent thing disappear, the evil spirit inside the boiler would get
angry through the greatness of his thirst, and take a terrible vengeance.
So he sweated and fired up and watched the glass fearfully. (97–8)
Clearly, the fireman’s education is merely an expedient one for the colonial
oYcials. They make no real attempt to ‘‘improve’’ him. They simply play
upon his own beliefs and replace them with similar ones, and so Marlow
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
refers to ‘‘the philanthropic pretence of the whole concern’’ (78). The
company is only interested in cheap labor, not in educating the Africans
about Western values and beliefs.
Further questioning of colonialism appears in the role of Western civilization
in Africa. From the moment Marlow steps ashore in Africa, Western
civilization appears to be absurd, out of place, or detrimental. Whether it be
the ‘‘objectless blasting’’ (64), the chief accountant’s attire (67–8), or the grove
of death (66–7),Western civilization does not improve Africa or the Africans,
and this initial representation only strengthens as the story progresses. If
Western civilization is grounded in absolute truth (as most Westerners
assumed), then it should thrive wherever disseminated. That it does not
thrivein Africa calls into question anyabsolute quality.Furthermore, Marlow
sees that not only does Western civilization not benefit the Africans, it does
not benefit the Europeans either. Consistently, he observes that Western
values and morals have little or no play in the lives of theEuropeans working
in the Congo. Instead, Marlow finds ‘‘a flabby, pretending, weak-eyed devil
of a rapacious and pitiless folly’’ (65). Far from observing a ‘‘devotion to
eYciency’’ (50) or centers ‘‘for humanizing, improving, instructing’’ (91), the
Europeans seem generally devoid of Western values. On several occasions,
one of the Europeans observes that Western morality does not come into
play in Africa, as when the uncle of the Central Station manager says,
‘‘Anything – anything can be done in this country’’ (91). Marlow recognizes
this dearth of moralityand notes that without external restraints in the form
of public opinion and law enforcement the Europeans do whatever they
want. They have no ‘‘inborn strength’’ (97) to fight unchecked desires. As a
result, the Europeans appear more savage than the Africans, whom the
Europeans consider savages. Marlow underscores this point in the incident
with the cannibals. In this scene,Marlow shows the cannibals first to be more
rational than their European employers and second to be more moral.
During the concernovera possible attack, the head cannibal says toMarlow,
‘‘Catch’im...Give’imto us.’’Marlowreplies, ‘‘Toyou,eh?Whatwouldyou
do with them?’’ to which the cannibal replies, ‘‘Eat ’im!’’ (103). Marlow then
continues:
I would no doubt have been properly horrified, had it not occurred to
me that he and his chaps must be veryhungry: that they must have been
growing increasingly hungry for at least this month past . . . and of
course, as long as there was a piece of paper written over in accordance
with some farcical law or other made down the river, it didn’t enter
anybody’s head to trouble how they would live . . . they had given them
Conrad’s middle period
every week three pieces of brass wire, each about nine inches long; and
the theory was they were to buy their provisions with that currency in
river-side villages. You can see how that worked. There were either no
villages, or the people were hostile ...So, unless they swallowed the
wire itself, or made loops of it to snare the fishes with, I don’t see what
good their extravagant salary could be to them. I must say it was paid
with a regularity worthy of a large and honourable trading company.
(103–4)
Not only does this incident reveal the absurdity of Western civilization in an
African setting (since the Western economic system makes no sense here),
but it also shows the cannibals to be more rational than the Europeans.
Marlow’s point becomes even more emphatic because Europeans considered
cannibalism to be the most savage behavior and the furthest removed from
civilized behavior. That the cannibals act more rationally than theEuropeans
makes Conrad’s comment on Western civilization that much more telling.
Conrad does not stop there, though. Shortly after the above exchange,
Marlow very reasonably wonders:
Why in the name of all the gnawing devils of hunger they didn’t go for
us – they were thirty to five – and have a good tuck-in for once, amazes
me now whenIthinkof it. They werebig powerful men,with not much
capacity to weigh the consequences, with courage, with strength . . .
And I saw that something restraining, one of those human secrets that
baZe probability, had come into playthere ...Restraint!What possible
restraint? Was it superstition, disgust, patience, fear – or some kind of
primitivehonour?No fear can standupto hunger,no patience canwear
it out, disgust simply does not exist where hunger is; and as to
superstition, beliefs, and what you may call principles, they are less than
chaV
ina breeze. Don’t you know the devilry of lingering starvation, its
exasperating torment, its black thoughts, its sombre and brooding
ferocity?Well,Ido.Ittakesamanallhis inbornstrengthtofighthunger
properly. It’s really easier to face bereavement, dishonour, and the
perdition of one’s soul – than this kind of prolonged hunger. Sad, but
true. And these chaps, too, had no earthly reason for any kind of
scruple. Restraint! I would just as soon have expected restraint from a
hyena prowling amongst the corpses of a battlefield. (104–5)
Ironically, the restraint that the cannibals exhibit appears to be the only
example of restraint in the story. The Europeans, who are supposed to be
civilized, consistently lack any restraint except when confronted with external
checks. In this case, the cannibals have no external restraints upon them, and
yet they exhibit an internalrestraint.Again, the fact that cannibals, whom the
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Europeans thought were the most savage of beings, act the most civilized of
any ofthe human beingsMarlow encounters emphasizes the utter savagery at
the heart of the Europeans when removed from the external restraints of
Western civilization.
Experiences like this one, along with the general disorder, waste, and
degeneration among the images of Western civilization, serve to erode Marlow’s
confidence in an orderly and absolute foundation for Western civilization.
This erosion culminates in Marlow’s experience with Kurtz and the
Central Station manager. Kurtz is presented as the high point of Western
civilization. Marlow is careful to note that ‘‘all Europe contributed to the
making of Kurtz’’ (117), and that Kurtz is ‘‘a prodigy,’’ ‘‘an emissary of pity,
and science, and progress’’ (79), and a ‘‘universal genius’’ (83). He is one of
‘‘thegangofvirtue’’(79),goingoutintothe Africanwilderness ‘‘equippedwith
moral ideas’’ (88) and with the purpose of disseminating Western values.
Something goes wrong along the way, though. Removed from the external
restraintsofWesterncivilization,Kurtzhasno internal restrainttokeephim
from doing whatever he pleases. The result is that rather than exerting ‘‘a
power for good practically unbounded’’ (118), Kurtz concludes by presiding
‘‘at certain midnight dances ending with unspeakable rites, which . . . were
oVered up to him’’ (118). Far from being an ‘‘august Benevolence’’ (118), he
ends up raiding the countryside in quest of more ivory. Marlow clearly
disapproves of Kurtz, so it comes as some surprise that Marlow sides with
him.Itisimportanttoremember,though, thatin sidingwithKurtz,Marlowis
simply choosing one ‘‘nightmare’’ (138) over another. Kurtz represents good
intentions gone terriblywrong.He had begun asa moral beingwith benevolent
intentions but ultimately couldnot maintain his ideals once invested with
absolute power. In the end, nothing was at the back of Kurtz – no solid
foundation, as Marlow says, ‘‘He had kickedhimself loose of the earth’’ (144).
The Central Station manager,however,is another case entirely.He commits
none of Kurtz’s evil acts and thoroughly disapproves of Kurtz and Kurtz’s
methods for collecting ivory. Yet, Marlow sides with Kurtz. Marlow does so,
though, because of what the Central Station manager represents. In a telling
conversation between the two, the manager remarks, ‘‘But there is
no disguising the fact, Mr. Kurtz has done more harm than good to the
Company. He did not see the time was not ripe for vigorous action . . . The
district is closed to us for a time. Deplorable! Upon the whole, the trade will
suVer... Lookhowprecariousthe positionis – andwhy? Becausethe method
is unsound’’ (137). Marlow comments concerning this conversation, ‘‘It
seemed to me I had never breathed an atmosphere so vile, and I turned
mentally to Kurtz for relief – positively for relief ’’ (138). The relief Marlow
Conrad’s middle period
seeks is in the world of morality and immorality that Kurtz represents. In
contrast, the manager represents a world of amorality. This world of amorality
had been evident for some time in the story. The mostglaring example of it
appearsearlyinthestoryinthechiefaccountant’s attitudetowardaninvalided
agent and the African workers. He says of the agent, ‘‘The groans of this sick
person distractmy attention.Andwithout thatitis extremelydiYcult to guard
against clerical errors in this climate’’ (69). Similarly,heremarksof the noise
the Africans make, ‘‘When one has got to make correct entries, one comes to
hate those savages – hate them to the death’’ (70). The tone of the Central
Station manager’s comments resembles that of the chief accountant. What
Marlow refers to as Kurtz’s raiding the country (128) the manager calls
‘‘vigorous action’’ (137), and the manager’s objection to Kurtz’s actions is
nota moral objection but rather an economic one.Heis unconcernedwith the
immorality of Kurtz’s actions. Instead, he recognizes that because of Kurtz’s
methods trade in the area will suVer in the long run.ForMarlow, the Central
Station manager and so many of the other Europeans associated with the
company appear outside morality. They are neither moral nor immoral but
rather amoral, concerned only with the economics of the colonial endeavor –
divorced from any altruistic feeling. In fact, they scoV
at such ideas (e.g., 79,
91).Kurtziswholly immoral,buthisisthestory ofgood moralsgonebad.In
contrast, the Central Station manager and almost every other European that
Marlow encounters in Africa has neither moral nor immoral intentions.
Consequently, they seem inhuman and utterly destroy any confidenceMarlow
might have had concerning the altruism of colonialism.
Asaresultof his experiencein the Africanwilderness,Marlow’sconfidence
in Western civilization and in any transcendental truths disappears, so much
so that he concludes, ‘‘Droll thing life is – that mysterious arrangement of
merciless logic for a futile purpose. The most you can hope from it is some
knowledge of yourself – that comes too late – a crop of unextinguishable
regrets’’ (150). Marlow has witnessed the stripping away of his civilized values
and views, and he discovers that nothing lies beneath. Knowledge of this
crucial truth is also exactly what the Europeans lack. Only Kurtz seems to
recognize fully the naked truth concerning himself and his ideals when he
sums up, ‘‘The horror! The horror!’’ (149). The rest of the Europeans in
Africa remain oblivious to the things that Marlow learns. Nor do they seem
to caretoinvestigate such issues.WhenMarlowreturnstoEurope,he findsit
no diVerent:
I found myself back in the sepulchral city resenting the sight of people
hurrying through the streets to filch a little money from each other, to
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
devour their infamous cookery, to gulp their unwholesome beer, to
dream their insignificant and silly dreams. They trespassed upon my
thoughts. They were intruders whose knowledge of life was to me an
irritating pretence, because I felt so sure they could not possibly know
the things I knew. Their bearing, which was simply the bearing of
commonplace individuals going about their business in the assurance of
perfect safety, was oVensive to me like the outrageous flauntings of folly
in the face of a danger it is unable to comprehend. (152)
Marlow sees these people as deluded and criticizes them because they do not
know what he knows: that the truths of Western civilization are facades that
hide an empty universe and that human existence has no ultimate meaning.
While Marlow thinks that one should see the world as it is, at the same time
he also wishes to keep such a bleak view at bay. As occurs so often with the
characters in Conrad’s works, Marlow seeks shelter from such withering
knowledge. For him, this shelter seems to exist in the idealistic world of
the Intended. Marlow’s lie to the Intended has been the subject of some
speculation. Clearly, he wishes to protect her and to spare her feelings, but
Marlow also wants to protect himself. That his lie is significant is clear from
his earliercomment: ‘‘You knowI hate, detest, and can’t beara lie’’ (82), and
yet he lies to the Intended about Kurtz’s last words. Earlier, Marlow had
remarked, ‘‘We must help them [women] to stay in that beautiful world of
their own, lest ours gets worse’’ (115), and when he comments on his lie
he says, ‘‘I could not tell her. It would have been too dark – too dark
altogether . . .’’ (162). By telling the Intended the truth, Marlow would have
shattered the pristine world that she and other women inhabit. By lying to
her,hepreserves that worldof ideals, which acts asa psychologicalrefuge for
Marlow from the bleak truths he has discovered outside it.
The storyends with a picture ofthe Thames that resembles the darkness of
the Congo river far more than it does the origins of ‘‘the sacred fire’’ (47)
of civilization. Marlow’s journey, as well as that of his listeners, has been
one of discovery – discovery of the nature of his self, his existence, and his
world.
‘‘The End of the Tether’’ is another tale that investigates moral and
psychological dilemmas. Captain Whalley has an almost obsessive devotion
to his daughter Ivy and intends to provide for her. After a lifetime of hard
work and honorable actions, Captain Whalley loses most of his savings in a
bank failure. He sells his ship and sends the money to Ivy so that she can
open a boarding house. Whalley then signs on as captain of the Sephora,
which is owned by Mr. Massy, a notoriously shady individual. Whalley
invests his last £500 in the Sephora with the understanding that after he has
Conrad’s middle period
served a three-year term as captain his investment will be paid back to him.
During his time as captain,Whalley’s eyesight begins to fail drastically, but he
continues in his position in order to receive back his investment (which
would have been delayed if he had left his position early). After they nearly
run aground near Batu Beru, Mr. Sterne, the mate, suspects a problem with
the captain’s eyesight and tells Massy. Massy does nothing because he hopes
to take advantage of the situation. Having already lost Whalley’s investment
gambling,Massyhangspiecesofiron nearthecompasstothrowtheshipoV
course and sink it in order to collect the insurance money. Unable to see the
reef and deceived by the compass, Whalley runs the ship aground. Whalley
discovers Massy’s trick, but he chooses to go down with the ship.
Most commentators have viewed ‘‘The End of the Tether’’ as one of
Conrad’s lesser works, but during the course of the storyConrad investigates
several important issues in unique ways. For example, Whalley’s plight is a
stark reminder of the frailty of human existence. In one blow, Whalley’s
world is unalterably changed; and the bank failure demonstrates that human
beings have little control over their existence and are ultimately at the mercy
of the whims of fate. Conrad further emphasizes this idea through the
gambling motif that runs throughout the story. Both in Massy’s gambling
with money andinWhalley’s gamblingwith the ship’s safety, chanceremains
in the forefront of the action of the story.
Conrad also investigates the relationship between loyalty to a social code
and loyalty to an individual. Conrad considers this conflict in a number of
his works, although he never seems to come to a definitive conclusion. In
such works as Lord Jim, Nostromo, and UnderWestern Eyes, Conrad seems to
privilege loyalty to an individual. In Nostromo, for instance, the narrator
comments: ‘‘A man hauntedby a fixed ideais insane.Heis dangerous evenif
that idea is an idea of justice; for mayhe not bring the heavendown pitilessly
upon a loved head?’’ (379). In ‘‘The End of the Tether,’’ however, despite
obvious sympathy for Whalley’s plight, Conrad clearly condemns Whalley’s
actions. By signing on to work for Massy, and especially bycontinuing in his
position once his eyesight had deteriorated, Whalley compromises his honor
and principles, which had been the basis for his life. He exchanged his
principles for his daughter, and he fully recognizes the import of this
transaction: ‘‘He had nothing of his own – even his past of honour, of truth,
of just pride, was gone. All his spotless life had fallen into the abyss’’ (319).
AlthoughWhalleyremainsloyaltohisdaughter,he risksthe livesofhis crew
and the property of Massy. In this case, the price Whalley pays in sacrificing
the social codeis toohigh, and Conrad further emphasizes his disapprovalby
portraying Ivy as unworthy of Whalley’s sacrifice. ‘‘The End of the Tether’’ is
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
unique because it represents one of the very few times when Conrad sides
with an idea over a human relationship.
Lord
Jim
Lord Jim deals with the problems of lost honor, Romantic idealism, and the
conflict between human relations and ideas. It is a novel that chronicles the
experiencesofa seamannamedJim.At anearlyage,Jimwantstogotoseato
experience the adventures he reads about in popular literature. He goes to a
training school and later enters the British Merchant Marine service. Shortly
thereafter, he accepts a position as second mate aboard the Patna. The ship
has been engaged to carry some 800Muslims ona pilgrimage toMecca. One
night, the Patnacollides with some object (perhaps a partially sunken wreck)
and begins taking on water. Jim goes below and sees that nothing can be
done, given the vessel’s poor condition. He goes back on deck and initially
waits for the inevitable end. In the meantime, the other oYcers busy themselves
trying to flee the ship. They lower one of the lifeboats and jump in. At
the last moment, Jim also jumps in. Later, they are rescued, believing that the
ship has sunk. Ironically, defying all probability, the ship does not sink, and
when the oYcers reach port news of the Patna’s rescue has already arrived.
The other oYcers abscond, but Jim stays to stand trial. His certificate is
revoked and for the next several years he wanders about various seaports
throughout the East drifting from one job to another, each time leaving when
his shameful past arises. In the end, Marlow, who has befriended Jim,
arranges through Stein to have Jim sent out to be in charge of an obscure
trading postinPatusan. Jim arrives and leads oneof the localvillages against
their oppressor, Sherif Ali, and succeeds in routing his forces. In so doing,
Jim becomes a hero to the people and achieves an almost legendary status.
Jim continues in this position until a renegade named Gentleman Brown
comes up the river in search of food and spoils. Jim is away when Brown
arrives, and when he returns, Brown and his men have been repulsed and are
under siege. Jim meets with Brown, and Brown convinces Jim either to fight
it out or to let Brown and his men leave unmolested. Brown intuitively plays
upon Jim’s continuing feelings of guilt over the Patna incident, and Jim
convinces the people of Patusan to allow Brown to leave. Unknown to Jim,
Cornelius (whom Jim had been sent to replace as Stein’s agent) shows Brown
another way out, and Brown takes the opportunity to ambush a group of
Patusani warriors during their retreat. The son of Doramin, the leader of
Patusan, is killed in the ambush, and Jim, who had pledged his life on his
Conrad’s middle period
decision, leaves his common-law wife, Jewel, and goes to Doramin, who
shoots and kills him.
This summary of the book’s plot, though, is far more direct than the
narrative itself. Although Conrad had previously experimented with innovations
in narrative technique, such as multiple narrators and achronological
narration, these innovations first appear fully developedin Lord Jim. Conrad
employed multiple narrators in ‘‘Heart ofDarkness,’’ for example, but his use
there was much more tentative and much more limited. In Lord Jim,however,
this technique blossoms into a powerful and eVective means of
conveying the novel’s diYcult and crucial concerns. Jim’s story comes from
various narrative sources, among them an omniscient narrator, Marlow,
Gentleman Brown, E ¨ gstrom, Tamb’ Itam, Stein, Jewel, and Jim himself. All
of these narrators (and others as well) tell a part of Jim’s story, but more
particularly they represent a perspective on Jim’s story. In other words,
besides providing information, they also provide a point of view on that
information. As a result, the story of Jim is not a sum of parts adding up to a
relative whole but rather a sum of perspectives adding up to an aggregate. Of
course, such a narrative technique represents reality, since it resembles the
way any story is usually a collection assembled from various sources. More
than this, though, by employing multiple narrators, Conrad emphasizes the
uncertainty of the final aggregate, suggesting that since all information is
filtered through a human consciousness, knowledge can never be certain.
Tied to Conrad’s use of multiple narrators is his use of achronological
narration.Where ‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ was subtly achronological, Lord Jim is
bewilderingly so.Particularly during the chapters narratedbythe omniscient
narrator but even after Marlow takes up the narrative, most readers coming
to the novelfor the first time find it diYcult to follow the sequence of events.
The achronology occurs in part because of multiple narrators telling diVerent
parts of the story non-consecutively, and it also occurs because Marlow’s
listeners know parts of the story that the reader does not. Conrad’s reasons,
however, for employing an achronological narrative are another matter. Like
multiple narrators, Conrad represents the way one usually learns of an event,
that is by learning segments of it and only in the very rarest instances
encountering those segments in chronological order. More important,
though, by using this methodology, Conrad can represent in narrative form
the issues raised in the novel. In other words, the confusion of the narrative
technique mirrors the confusion of the moral issues considered. Furthermore,
like multiple narrators, fracturing the narrative sequence represents the
fractured facts that Marlow must piece together and that can lead to only a
tentative knowledge of what happened. Again, the narrative methodology
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and the impossibility of knowing
anything for certain.
The issue of Romanticism is one of the most important in Lord Jim.As
Stein had ascertained, Jim is indeed a Romantic, and Jim’s Romanticism is
one of Conrad’s primarypoints of investigation. After abandoning the Patna,
Jim’s reaction is similar to what he had done after he failed aboard the
training ship as a youth. Rather than recognizing his failure, he sees himself
as a victim of circumstances that conspired to thwart him. As a result, he
continues to see himself as a heroic figure and believes that if he can just
get another chance he can prove himself to be a hero. The diYculty with
this view is that he does not realize that there are no second chances.
The maritime community requires absolute fidelity to a ‘‘fixed standard of
conduct’’ (50). This standard of conduct does not allow for failure.
Jim’s trouble, however, goes beyond himself. Throughout the novel,
Marlow refers to Jim as ‘‘one of us.’’ This refrain becomes a crucial issue in
the book, and Jim’s individual concerns become the community’s collective
concerns. Jim reminds the members of the community, and Marlow in
particular, ofthemselves when they were young, and thus they see themselves
in Jim’s failure.Marlow follows Jim’s career andoVers help wherehe can, out
of friendship and compassion to be sure, but also out of self interest. Marlow
hopes to find some excuse for Jim’s failure because he sees himself in Jim.
Marlow also hopes for an explanation so that he can again have full confidence
in the maritime code because what becomes clear to Marlow is that in
the same circumstances anyone might have failed as Jim had failed; hence the
code’s unbending demands become suspect.
Besides the code itself, Conrad further questions the basis for its code in
Western ideals. If the code fails to hold up against scrutiny, then Western
ideals may come into question as well. Conrad’s criticism, however, goes even
deeper than simply criticizing Romantic cultural ideals and the maritime
codeofconduct.He also criticizesWestern cultural idealsin general.In other
words, ultimately, the origin of both Romantic ideals and the ideals of the
maritime codeofconductisa group ofWestern cultural values that requirea
perfection that is illusory. The story of Brierly emphasizes Conrad’s skepticism
concerningWestern ideals. Conrad clearly sets up Brierly as an example
of the best that the maritime service can oVer:
He had never in his life made a mistake, never had an accident, never a
mishap, never a check in his steady rise, and he seemed to be one of
those lucky fellows who know nothing of indecision, much less of self-
mistrust. At thirty-two he had one of the best commands going in the
Conrad’s middle period
Eastern trade . . .He had saved lives at sea, had rescued shipsin distress,
had a gold chronometer presented to him by the underwriters, and a
pair of binoculars with a suitable inscription from some foreign
Government, in commemoration of these services. (57)
Everyone seems to agree; even those who dislike Brierly recognize his abilities,
and yet Marlow is careful to point out that Brierly’s suicide results
directly from his involvement with Jim’s case. Marlow remarks that during
Jim’s trial Brierly ‘‘was probably holding silent inquiryinto his own case. The
verdict must have beenof unmitigated guilt’’ (58), and laterMarlowsays that
‘‘poor Brierly must have been thinking of himself ’’ (66) when he talked to
Marlow of Jim’s case. In the end, we cannot fully understand the reason for
Brierly’s suicide, but he is clearly troubledbyJim’s case, and whether he seeks
to conceal a previous failure or perhaps is simply unwilling to allow himself
the possibility of Jim’s sort of failure, the result is essentially the same: he
seems to recognize, as had Marlow, that given the right set of circumstances
perhaps anyone could fail. Thus, with the case of Brierly, Conrad again calls
into question the code itself, suggesting that if no one can live up to the
code’s standards, then the standards themselves are faulty. Such is the unavoidable
conclusion regarding the ideals of the code, and, as with the
Romantic ideals that so govern Jim’s existence, the ultimate source of the
code’s ideals is Western civilization itself. Jim’s downfall, as was true of
Brierly’s, results from the idealistic code to which he adheres, and his inability
to abandon the code when he enters Patusan leaves him susceptible to
Gentleman Brown’s manipulation. In this way, Western civilization itself
comes into question in Lord Jim.
Marlow’s insistence that Jim is ‘‘one of us’’ is also significant in determining
the breadth of the implications of Jim’s behavior and failings. Conrad is
consistently vague about the reference of Marlow’s statement ‘‘one of us.’’
Does Marlow refer to human beings in general, only to Westerners, to
members of the maritime community, to the oYcers of the maritime community,
to the gentleman classof theWestern world –orto allof them? One
thing is clear, though: Jim’s failure is not an individual failure but rather a
community failure. As a result, the other characters and even Conrad’s
readers must ask themselves the question that Jim asksMarlow: ‘‘what would
you have done?’’ (92).
Conrad further questions the ideals that appear in the novelby considering
the end result of following those ideals. The ideals consistently appear at odds
with human relations. The conflict most clearly appears in the conclusion to
the novel, in which Marlow lays out the alternatives when he says, ‘‘He goes
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
away from a living woman to celebrate his pitiless wedding with a shadowy
ideal of conduct’’ (416). Marlow can only question the merit of choosing an
idea – particularly one that has been shown to be illusory – over the human
relationship that existed between Jim and Jewel.
Nevertheless, as so often in his best works, Conrad does not leave things so
easily resolved. Conrad’s criticism of Jim’s choice is clear, but Jim’s plight is
not. The communion between Jim and Jewel is one example of the idea of
community that is so important in Lord Jim. Marlow’s constant refrain that
Jim is ‘‘one of us’’ along with Jim’s relationship to the maritime fraternity
keeps the issue of community prominent among the novel’s concerns.
Jim spends the entire novel trying to make his way back into the maritime
community. Once he jumps from the Patna, Jim seems forever to forfeit his
membership and finds himself alone, an outcast from the community. After
his jump, all of Jim’s choices are meant to demonstrate that he belongs. Jim’s
plight becomes the plight of all human beings in their desire to belong. All are
isolated in the modern world, and any communal bonds one acquires are
both tentative and transitory, and yet without such bonds, one can only
despair, as Jim does. Jim sees his choice to meet Doramin rather than staying
with Jewel as his reinstatement in the community from which he had been
cast out. In his mind, he is once again ‘‘one of us.’’ Consequently, Jim’s
dilemma is such that he must choose not just between a communal bond
with Jewel or upholding an ideal but also between a bond with Jewel or a
bond with his community. He cannot maintain both bonds. Marlow is
critical of Jim’s choice, but he himself is unwilling to relinquish his ties to
the community, even though he recognizes that it rests not upon a transcendent
foundation but merely upon the common consent of its members.
Such is the human desire to belong.
Similarly, even Conrad’s critique of the ideals upon which Jim’s choice is
based is not clear. Conrad certainly criticizes Western ideals, but at the same
time, he refuses to dismiss them entirely. This conflict appears most prominently
in Stein’s comments on Jim’s Romanticism: ‘‘And that is verybad – very
bad...Verygood, too’’ (216). Jim’sRomanticism is bad for all of the reasons
listed above (and for others as well). In particular, as Stein suggests, Romanticismisbad
becauseitis nevercontentwiththe statusquo.Italwayslooksto
go beyond the limits imposed upon it. Thus, it represents an ultimate
impossibility: perfection. At the same time, though, Romantic idealism is
good, according to Stein, and it is good for exactly the same reasons that it is
bad, because it espouses never being satisfied with one’s condition, constantly
striving for improvement, and always seeking to go beyond limitations. This
Conrad’s middle period
ambiguity results in what appears so often in Conrad – a recognition of the
illusorynatureofWestern idealsandthe absolutesupon whichitis based,but
at the same time a recognition of certain qualities in human beings (the
constant striving for betterment, the desire to improve one’s circumstances,
the wish to push beyond limitations) that Conrad believed make human
beingshuman.Theresultofthese conflictedviewsisanuncertaintythatmarks
Conrad’s works in general and marks Conrad’s view of the world as a whole.
‘‘Typhoon’’
and
Other
Stories
‘‘Typhoon’’ introduces the reader to Captain MacWhirr, an unimaginative
man, who commands the Nan-Shan and is taking two hundred Chinese
workers back to China. During the course of the journey, they encounter
bad weather, but rather than trying to maneuver around the storm MacWhirr
takes the ship straight into it. To make matters worse, the passengers’
belongings become hopelessly mixed together, and the Chinese below deck
begin rioting and fighting over their money, which has been thrown about
everywhere. The crew finally restores order, and somehow the ship makes it
through the storm. With everything in a shambles below, MacWhirr decides
that the only fair thing to do is to gather up all of the lost money and divide it
equally among the passengers, which he does.
Conrad’s narrative technique in the story is unusual, as the information
comes from a variety of sources, a third-person narrator, who relates more
than one perspective, as well as lettersby crew members. Theresultis similar
to that in Lord Jim, for instance, although on a smaller scale. In other words,
the reader sees the events narrated from several perspectives and recognizes
the inherent inability to know anything with certainty since so much is
determined by the source from which it comes.
‘‘Typhoon’’ is a companion piece of sorts to The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus.’’
Both stories deal with the eVects of a storm on a ship’s crew, and both also
consider the relationship between the idea of community and human survival.
‘‘Typhoon’’ presents one of the more interesting characters in Conrad’s
canon: CaptainMacWhirr. Initially,it would seem easyto dismiss him. Early
on, MacWhirr is described as ‘‘having just enough imagination to carry him
througheach successive day, and no more, he was tranquilly sure of himself ’’
(4). Later, Conrad notes:
Captain MacWhirr had sailed over the surface of the oceans as some
men go skimming over the years of existence to sink gently into a placid
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
grave, ignorant of life to the last, without ever having been made to
see all it may contain of perfidy, of violence, and of terror. There are
on sea and land such men thus fortunate –or thus disdainedbydestiny
or by the sea. (19)
MacWhirr’s very obliviousness, however, is exactly what allows him and his
crewto survivethetyphoon.Heis supremely unimaginative,andas suchisa
counterexample to Jim in Lord Jim, whose imagination causes him to fail
when confronted with a crisis. Furthermore, MacWhirr’s stolidity serves as a
comfort and strength to his crew, providing the men with an example of
decisiveness and immovability in facing the storm. He also represents an
individual who can focus solely on the task at hand, sheltered from larger
issues. MacWhirr’s ability is both ‘‘fortunate’’ and ‘‘disdained.’’ Throughout
his writings, Conrad demonstrates the need to be free from illusions about
the nature of the world, that no transcendence exists to provide meaning in
the universe or in human existence. At the same time, Conrad also demonstrates
the need to be able to shelter oneself from such knowledge; otherwise,
one can only despair. MacWhirr, although disdained for his obtuseness,
is nevertheless fortunate in that he never has to struggle with the more
diYcult issues surrounding human existence. This characteristic also serves
MacWhirr well when dealing with the distribution of the Chinese passengers’
property. His decision to divide it evenly among them is surprisingly successful
and causes Jukes, the chief mate, to conclude, ‘‘Ithink that he got out
of it very well for such a stupid man’’ (102).
Thus the primary purpose of the story is not so much to relate an exciting
event – the climax of which Conrad entirely skips – but rather to investigate
the psychological and sociological reactions of the men in crisis. The crew
members must maintain community through their mutual cooperation in
order to keep the ship afloat during the storm. At the same time, though,
Conrad demonstrates the ultimate isolation of human beings from one
another. The typhoon accentuates this state, and as a result a tension exists
in the story between community and isolation. Thus, ‘‘Typhoon’’ becomes a
metaphor for human existence in general. For Conrad, human beings find
themselves in an indiVerent universe in which danger and death are always
just around the corner. In addition, as has been shown in Conrad’s other
works, human existence itself is a paradox in that one requires communal
relationships, but at the same time all communal ties are at best tenuous,
dependent solely upon the mutual consent of a community’s members.
Hence, like the men on the Nan-Shan, human beings seek to connect with
others, but in the end they are ultimately alone.
Conrad’s middle period
‘‘To-morrow’’ is the story of retired Captain Hagberd, who continually
puts oV
everything until ‘‘to-morrow’’ when his long-lost son, Harry, will
return. Hagberd befriends his neighbor, Bessie Carvil, whose father tyrannizes
over her, and says that his son will marryher when he returns. The great
ironyis that when his son doesreturn the Captain fails torecognize him, and
when the son learns of his father’s misplaced intention of marrying him to
Bessie, he leaves again. The story ends with Hagberd continuing to express
his faith in ‘‘to-morrow.’’
The captain’s delusional obsession is another of Conrad’s psychological
investigations into the way human beings cope with the uncertainty of
human existence. On the one hand, Hagberd’s delusion leaves him perpetually
out of touch with reality, but on the other hand, it provides an anchor of
hope that allows him to deal with the uncertainty of life and the future.
Hagberd’s delusion stands in stark contrast to Bessie’s situation. While
Hagberd can retreat into his delusion when Harry leaves once again, Bessie
knows that Harry will not return again to his father or to her, and she is thus
forcedto back into her hellish existence. The storyis also noteworthybecause
of the sympathetic treatment of Bessie’s situation. Conrad delineates the
bleak position in which most unmarried women found themselves at that
time. With employment opportunities both scarce and meager, unmarried
women were often left dependent uponrelatives.MarryingHarry(or anyone
else) is her only opportunity to escape from her domineering father, but the
story makes clear that, unlike Harry, Bessie cannot escape her father.
‘‘Amy Foster’’ has long been viewed as a story with autobiographical
overtones. A Pole, Yanko Goorall, seeks to emigrate to America. When the
shipheis aboard sinks,heis cast ashoreinan isolated partofKent and finds
himself an outcast in the community, unable to communicate fully or
integrate into society. Only Amy Foster befriends him, and they eventually
marry. Cultural diVerences, however, again arise, this time between Goorall
and his wife. A simple woman, she is troubled by Goorall’s foreign habits,
particularly his trying to teach their baby Polish. One night Goorall falls ill
and frightens Amy when in his delirium he calls for water in Polish. Amy
flees, leaving Goorall to die alone.
To be sure, Conrad must have had his own situation in mind as a Pole.
Conrad himself must have often felt isolated, usually the only Pole in his
community and married to an English woman who, like Amy Foster, was
often troubledbyConrad’s foreign behavior.Nevertheless, to suggest that the
story is solely an autobiographical allegory would be oversimplifying. Instead,
‘‘Amy Foster’’ investigates the general question of the interaction
between diVerent cultures and shows that misunderstandings and diYculties
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
abound when cultures collide. In a particularly interesting way, Conrad looks
at this question from the other side of British culture. Rather than considering
how the English (or other Europeans) interact with non-Western cultures,
as Conrad does so often in his early fiction, ‘‘AmyFoster’’ considers the
plightof the outsiderwithinEngland. TheresultisadiVerent kind of critique
of British interaction with outsiders. In other words, Conrad demonstrates
that the diYculties that arise when Western and non-Western cultures interact
result not simply from diVering settings and societies but rather from a
general human inability to accept diVerence in others. In the process, Conrad
uncovers the fear, suspicion, and biases that exist toward outsiders, as Goorall
is systematically isolated from the community. ‘‘Amy Foster’’ is also strongly
concerned with the nature of the relationship between the individual and
society. Goorall’s plight demonstrates the need for individuals to become part
of a communityand the ultimate despair that results from the inability to do
so. The only character who seems to accept Goorall is Amy Foster. Even she,
though, cannot fully accept him in the end, and when she deserts him during
his illness, the isolation proves to be too much for Goorall to bear, and he
dies of ‘‘heart-failure’’ (141).
‘‘Falk: A Reminiscence’’ is a story of the collision of two radically diVerent
value systems: the Western system and the survivalist system. The story
beginswithayoung captain going tovisita friendHermann and his family.
Later, when the young captain is ready to leave port, he cannot get Falk, the
owner of the only tug-boat, to tow him out to sea. Falk even goes so far as to
make sure that the young captain cannot hire any other pilot for the job.
Mystified, the youngcaptain happens to run into Falk one day and discovers
that Falk has mistaken the young captain for a suitor to Hermann’s niece,
whom Falk wishes to marry. The young captain assures Falk that he is no
suitor and even oVers to act as Falk’s advocate. Falk then tells the young
captain of a significant experience in his past. Before the events in the story,
Falk had been on a ship adrift for a long time. The food supply was eventually
exhausted, and at one point the ship’s carpenter tries to shoot Falk, with the
idea of eating Falk’s corpse. The carpenter’s shot misses, and Falk shoots the
carpenter dead. The remaining crew members then eat the carpenter’s body.
When the crew are finally rescued, besides Falk, only three others remain, and
those three eventually die. Falk alone survives the catastrophe.When Mr. and
Mrs.Hermann learn of Falk’s past, they are horrified and want nothing to do
with him. Hermann’s niece, however, pities Falk and determines to marry
him.
The significance of these events lies in the conflict that arises between the
Western taboo against cannibalism and the exigencies that Falk’s situation
Conrad’s middle period
demands. Falk is determined to survive at all costs and discards the cultural
taboo. The result of this conflict between value systems is such that
Hermann’s Western values come into question, and Falk’s actions appear to
be much more reasonable given the circumstances. Had Falk held to his
Western values, he would have perished. In addition to this conflict ofvalues,
Falk’s experience provides a strong reminder concerning the kind of world in
which human beings exist. Far from being the place of safety and comfort
that the Western world provides, the thin wall of civilization is all that
separates one from the possibility of tragedy or death. In the story, Conrad
further investigates the relationship between human beings and the world
around them in the narrator’s experience with Falk. As also happens later to
Razumov in Under Western Eyes, the narrator finds himself in a world that
makes no sense. He cannot sail out of port without Falk’s help, and Falk
inexplicably refuses to help him and ensures that no one else can help him
either.As Razumov finds himself helplessly enmeshed in Haldin’s crime, or as
D’Hubert in ‘‘The Duel’’ finds himself caught in a seemingly endless cycle of
duels, so also does the narrator of ‘‘Falk’’ find himself caught in the middle of
a dispute of which he has no knowledge.Not until the narrator discovers that
Falk sees him as a rival can he extricate himself from the absurdist existence
into which he stumbles. The implication of this situation is, of course, that
the world is a place that makes no rational sense, a place in which human
beings have little control over their existence and are ultimately subject to
forces outside themselves.
Nostromo
Nostromois the first of Conrad’s openly political novels.It is clearly Conrad’s
most ambitious work, and many argue that it is his finest novel. During the
course of the novel, Conrad does no less than create an imaginary South
American country, complete with history, politics, international relations,
and society. The sheer magnitude of such a creation is itself remarkable.
Charles Gould has been away at school and returns to Sulaco in the
country of Costaguana intent on making a success of the defunct silver mine
that had been given to Gould’s father in repayment for forced loans to the
government. With the financial backing of Holroyd, an American financier,
Gould eventually makes the mine a success. For a short while, relative peace
and prosperity reign until General Montero initiates a coup. Don Vincente
Ribiera, president of Costaguana, is defeated and forced to flee the country.
Fearful that six-months-worth of silver from the mine will fall into the hands
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
of the Monterists, Gould arranges to have it spirited out of the country by
boat. Martin Decoud and Nostromo are entrusted with the task, but on
route, the boat collides with a rebel troopship and is forced to land on an
isolated island, where Decoud and Nostromo hide the silver. Nostromo then
swims back to Sulaco. Shortly after arriving, Dr. Monygham enlists Nostromo
to ride to Cayta to bring back General Barrios to fight theMonterists,
who have arrived in Sulaco in an attempt to secure the silver mine. Gould,
however, has taken precautions to prevent such an event by leaving instructions
that if it is attacked Don Pe´pe´ is to blow up the mine. Barrios arrives
and defeats the Monterists and succeeds in bringing about a plan that
Decoud had proposed that the geographically isolated Occidental province,
of which Sulaco is a part, secede from the rest of Costaguana. Ironically,
Decoud, left alone on the island for a number of days, grows depressed and
assumes that all has failed. One morning he rows a little way oVshore and
shoots himself, falling into the water, weighed down by four silver ingots.
Severalyears pass, andSulaco has becomea prosperous place. Gould and the
mine are flourishing, andNostromoowns hisown ship and trading business.
All appears well in Sulaco, except for the growing labor unrest. Also, Nostromo,
having returned to the hidden silver, discovered Decoud and the four
ingots missing. Everyone has assumed that the silver was lost after the
collision, and Nostromo, who is afraid to reveal the silver’s hiding place for
fear that he would be accused of stealing the missing ingots, decides to take
the ingots one by one and slowly grow rich. During this time, Giorgio Viola,
whohasbeenlikeasecond fathertoNostromo,hasbeenplacedinchargeof
the newly built lighthouse on the very island where the silver is hidden. One
night, while Nostromo is going to retrieve more silver, Giorgio mistakes him
for an intruder and shoots him. Nostromo dies shortly afterwards.
Nostromo is a darkly pessimistic novel that juxtaposes political issues with
issues of human relationships, interweaving these throughout the course of
the narrative. It is easily Conrad’s longest and most complex novel, and it is a
rare reader who upon first reading it can find his or her way through the
labyrinth of plots, plethora of characters, and fragmented sequence of events
without experiencing confusion. In fact, there may be points in the novel in
which it is impossible fully to understand the events that are being related
without first knowing details that do not come until later.
This narrative confusion serves two purposes. As he does elsewhere,
Conrad attempts to render the way individuals usually approach an event
new to them, that is by learning diVerent pieces from diVerent sources and
typically encountering these sources achronologically. Unlike in ‘‘Heart of
Darkness’’ and Lord Jim, in which Conrad employed multiple narrators
Conrad’s middle period
whose information then filtered through the main narrator Marlow, Nostromo
employs an omniscient narrator, who relates the characters’ diVering
perspectives. As was true of the omniscient narrator of the first few chapters
of Lord Jim, this omniscient narrator is certainly a very unusual one, who
withholds information from the reader and who relates events in an achronological
fashion. In Nostromo, Conrad achieves the same ends with his
narrative methodology as he did in Lord Jim and ‘‘Heart of Darkness.’’ The
diVeringviewsofevents, eventhough relatedby asingle omniscient narrator,
still demonstrate the relativity and subjectivity of knowledge, and the achronological
narrative technique similarly demonstrates the uncertainty of
knowledge.At the same time, though, the multiple perspectives and fractured
chronology that result in the novel’s narrative confusion also mirror the
moral and political confusion that so permeates the novel.
Throughout the novel, Conrad indicts politics on all levels. Consistently,
he portrays the revolutionaries as self-serving, brutal, greedy, and power
hungry. Despite their rhetoric, they are anything but altruistic. Conrad,
however,is not much more positive towardthe Ribiera government or Sulaco
secessionist government at the end of the novel. The Ribiera government was
ushered in through the influence of Gould and the mine, and although it
appears to be better than its predecessors, that is not saying much since
Costaguana’s history has been one of consistent brutality, waste, greed, and
stupidity.Even amongst the Ribiera government, corruption is rampant, and
most of its positive qualities only appear so because they are set against the
background of previous governments. As to the Sulaco government, it bears
the marks of a European democracy and appears to be progressive in its
thinking. However, the mine is at its heart, and it is founded upon material
interests rather than upon thoughts of the common good. The government’s
inception and its primarypurpose is to protect the interests of the mine – not
the people. Some political peace and economic prosperity result, but they are
not the main goal of the government. In this sense, the government exhibits a
kind of inhumanity. Add to this the tenuous political peace, and the picture
of Sulaco at the end of the novel is hardly as rosy as Captain Mitchell, for
example, thinks it to be (489).
Linked to the political situation in Costaguana are Conrad’s comments on
imperialism, but rather than looking at imperialism in Africa or Southeast
Asia, Conrad considers imperialism in the new world, particularly the way
European and American imperialist policies aVected Latin America.Much of
the political instability, revolutionary activity, and economic turmoil result
from the interference of Europe and America. Gould is of English descent;
Decoud is of French descent; Holroyd is American. These individuals as well
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
as others and various European and American business and government
interests are a source of friction between the Costaguanans and the Blancos
(the aristocrats of European descent). The Monteros’ primary propaganda
revolves around driving out European and American political and business
interests in Costaguana. In short, Conrad sees the mess that Costaguana has
become resulting largely from imperialist interference.
The source of imperialist activities in Nostromo is the silver. Conrad had
considered naming the novel The Silver of the Mine, and such a title would
have been appropriate since everything that occurs revolves around the silver.
The silver is the object of Gould’s enterprises, the goal of the revolutionaries,
the primary underpinning of the country’s economy, the practical support
for the government, and the source of so much that happens in Costaguana.
In short, the silver permeates the existence of every member of society,
particularly those living in Sulaco and its surroundings. The great irony is
that the country’s greatest success at the end of the novel, its economic
prosperity and stability, is also its greatest failure. Although Gould’s father
received the rights to the mine as repayment for loans, he was forced to pay
royalties on the mine’s potential. The strain and humiliation of this situation
eventually kills Gould’s father, who warns Charles not to return to Costaguana,
but Charles ignores his father’s warning and returns equipped with an
engineering degree and financial backing.He then proceeds to take the mine,
which his father thought to be a curse, and resurrect it, making it aprosperous
and powerful force in the country. A further result of the mine’s success
lies in the political stability it provides. All of this ought to indicate an
unmitigated success, particularly given the political and economic chaos
and turmoil of so much of Costaguana’s history. In one sense, the mine is
certainly a great success – but in another sense it is an abject failure.
The cost of the mine’s success is great. The short time of political peace
during Ribiera’s presidency eventually crumbles into chaos and revolution,
the primary goal of the revolutionaries being to gain control of the mine.
Without the mine as a prize, the Monteros might have been less inclined to
overthrow Ribiera’s government. Even more telling is the political atmosphereat
the endof the novel, though. TheSulaco government contrastswith
the typical political machinations that marred Costaguana’s past. The region
grows in prosperity and peace, and in Captain Mitchell’s words, ‘‘It is a
success,’’ ‘‘the ‘TreasureHouse of theWorld’’’ (489). Beneath this success,
however, lies a smoldering danger. As Dr. Monygham prophesies, ‘‘There is
no peace and no rest in the development of material interests . . . the time
approaches when all that the Gould Concession stands for shall weigh as
heavily upon the people as the barbarism, cruelty, and misrule of a few years
Conrad’s middle period
back’’ (511). And the narrator says of Mrs. Gould, ‘‘She saw the San Tome´
mountain hanging over the Campo, over the whole land, feared, hated,
wealthy; more soulless than any tyrant, more pitiless and autocratic than
the worst Government; ready to crush innumerable lives in the expansion of
its greatness’’ (521). The developing labor unrest and the unavoidable control
themineexertsoverthe livesofallof thosewholivewithinSulacopresagean
ominous sequel to the events chronicled in Nostromo.
More troubling than the smoldering political unrest, though, is the mine’s
toll in human cost, as it destroys so many individuals either physically or
spiritually. Charles and Emilia Gould, Nostromo, Gould’s father, Decoud,
Hirsch, the revolutionaries, the federalists, the counter-revolutionaries, the
mine workers, and the politicians are all damaged in some way or other. The
mine kills Gould’s father, as well asHirsch and therevolutionaries, federalists,
counter-revolutionaries, and politicians who die during theMonteristrevolt.
Decoud’s suicide can also be linked to the mine. The mine’s most devastating
eVect, however, appears in the character changes that occur in so many
individuals. Their lives are transformed from lives of peace and stability to
lives of unrest and greed. Sotillo, the Monteros, and their followers attempt
their revolt primarily because of the mine, and the mine workers and other
laborers in Sulaco at the end of the novelalso live lives of unrest because they
want a greater part of the mine’s profits. Charles Gould, Nostromo, and
Emilia Gould, though, are those most aVected by the mine.
Charles Gould begins with high ideals. He remarks, ‘‘What is wanted here
is law, good faith, order, security. Any one can declaim about these things,
but I pin my faith to material interests. Only let the material interests once
get a firm footing, and they are bound to impose the conditions on which
alone they can continue to exist’’ (84). He believes that if the mine can be
made prosperous, political stability and economic prosperity will follow. As
noted above, in many ways, Gould is correct, and the prosperity and success
of the mine translate into peace and prosperity for Sulaco. In this sense,
Gould is a great success – but at a great cost. The narrator notes that the
‘‘mine had got hold of Charles Gould with a grip as deadly as ever it had laid
upon his father’’ (400) and that it ‘‘had insidiously corrupted his judgment’’
(364). In the process of making the mine a success, it becomes Gould’s
sole focus and ultimately becomes a barrier between him and his wife
(239). Decoud writes to his sister that Emilia Gould ‘‘has discovered that
he [Charles] lives for the mine rather than for her’’ (245). Eventually, she
realizes that she ‘‘would never have him to herself. Never; not for one short
hour altogether to herself ’’ (521–2). Gould ends emotionally dead, always
choosing the mine over Emilia.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Although Emilia Gould does not experience the same change of character
that Charles does, she still experiences the devastating eVects of the mine’s
influence. Emilia had joined Charles in his idealistic quest to make the mine a
success, hoping that its economic prosperity would be a blessing to the
region. She discovers instead that it becomes a curse, particularly to herself:
The fateof the SanTome´ mine waslying heavy upon her heart.It wasa
long time now since she had begun to fear it. It had been an idea. She
had watched it with misgivings turning into a fetish, and now the fetish
had grown into a monstrous and crushing weight. It was as if the
inspiration of their early years had left her heart to turn into a wall
of silver-bricks, erected by the silent work of evil spirits, between her
and her husband. (221–2)
By the end of the novel, she thinks, ‘‘A terrible success for the last of the
Goulds. The last! She hoped for a long, long time, that perhaps – But no!
There were to be no more. An immense desolation, the dread of her own
continued life, descended upon the first lady of Sulaco’’ (522). She loses not
only her husband to the mine but also any hope she had for the comfort
children might have brought, and is thus alone in the world.
The mine also destroys Nostromo. When we first meet him, he is at peace
with himself and is universally respected and admired. Captain Mitchell
refers to him as ‘‘invaluable . . . a perfectly incorruptible fellow’’ (127).
Almost from the moment Nostromo is enlisted to keep the shipment of
silver from the revolutionaries, however, he begins to change. He complains
to Decoud and Monygham about his precarious position in protecting the
silver, and after he begins to steal the silver he loses everything: ‘‘Nostromo
had lost his peace; the genuineness of all his qualities was destroyed. He felt it
himself, and often cursed the silver of SanTome´’’ (523).Nostromo no longer
possesses those qualities that had made him who he was. Instead, he becomes
obsessed with the silver:
He could never shake oV
the treasure. His audacity, greater than that of
other men, had welded that vein of silver into his life. And the feeling of
fearful and ardent subjection, the feeling of his slavery – so irremediable
and profound that often, in his thoughts, he compared himself to the
legendary Gringos, neither dead nor alive, bound down to their
conquest of unlawful wealth on Azuera – weighed heavily on the
independent Captain Fidanza. (526–7)
Nostromo becomes the silver’s ‘‘faithful and lifelong slave’’ (501). He
recognizes what has happened to him and feels ‘‘the weight as of chains
Conrad’s middle period
upon his limbs’’ (539) and hears ‘‘the clanking of his fetters – his silver
fetters’’ (546).Onhis deathbed,Nostromoexclaims, ‘‘Thesilverhas killed
me.Ithas held me. Itholds meyet’’ (559).Despite thecontinuingrespect
andadmiration ofthose around him,Nostromocannot besatisfiedorat
peace, knowing that he has sold himself for the silver. Emilia Gould most
tellingly sums up the eVect of the silver on all of Sulaco when she says to
Monygham, ‘‘Isn’t there enough treasure . . . to make everybody in the
world miserable?’’ (557).
The result of the harsh judgment that Conrad passes on so many of his
characters in Nostromois much like what appears in LordJim and in so many
of his other works. In Lord Jim, idealism came into question when Conrad
demonstrated how Jim and others privilege it over human relationships.
A similar eVect occurs in Nostromo; in this case, though, it is the silver that
is privileged over human relationships. This fact appears most clearly in the
novel’s characters, all of whose lives in some way or other revolve around the
silver of the San Tome´ mine.
The
Secret
Agent
The Secret Agent is perhaps Conrad’s most perfectly constructed novel. His
control of language and scene, as well as the ironic distance he achieves,
combines with powerful moral and political issues to result in one of Conrad’s
finest works.
The novel openswithAdolfVerloc, theownerofa pornography shop and
informant against London’s revolutionary community, going to meet with
Mr. Vladimir, a high-ranking diplomat of a foreign (probably Russian)
embassy.Mr. Vladimir demandsthatVerlocblowuptheGreenwichMeridian
Observatoryso that therevolutionarieswillbe blamed.He wants an outraged
British public to pressure its politicians into cracking down on revolutionaries,
many of whom are foreign exiles orchestrating revolutionary activities
in their home countries. Verloc has married his former landlady’s daughter,
Winnie, and Winnie, her mother, and her intellectually challenged brother,
Stevie, live with Verloc. After a few weeks, Verloc secures a bomb from the
Professor, a notorious Anarchist. Worried over what he has been required to
do,Verlochasbegungoingonlong walkswithStevie.Itisduringthisprocess
that Verloc gets the idea that he will have Stevie place the bomb because he
would attract no suspicion.When the time comes,however, Stevie apparently
trips and blows himself to pieces. The police eventually find their way to
Verloc becauseWinniehad sewn Stevie’s address intoataginhis coat.Verloc
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
confesses to the police and awaits his fate, having previously withdrawn all of
his savings and given it to Winnie for safekeeping. Winnie, who adores her
brother, overhears Verloc’s confession, becomes distraught, and later stabs
Verloc to death while he is lying on the couch. Afraid of being hanged, she
leaves the house, intent on throwing herself into the Thames. On the way, she
encounters Comrade Ossipon, one of Verloc’s revolutionary acquaintances
and a notorious womanizer. Winnie oVers to run away with him, and after
accompanying her back to her house, Ossipon discovers Verloc dead.
Frightened, he develops a plan to get rid of Winnie. He suggests that they
enter the train separately and then later meet up and take the ferry across the
English Channel.Winnie gives Ossipon the moneyVerloc had given her, and
after buying the train tickets he waits untilWinnie gets onto the train.At the
last moment, Ossipon leaps oV
the train, leavingWinnietogo onby herself.
Later, Winnie drowns herself in the crossing. The novel ends with Ossipon
tormented by the knowledge of what has happened.
The Secret Agent investigates the seedy underworld of London’s radical
politics in which revolutionaries and Anarchists work against mainstream
Western civilization. Conrad is clearly contemptuous of these radicals. Comrade
Ossipon, Michaelis, Karl Yundt, Adolf Verloc, and the Professor are
members of the radical camp. Their politics range from being double agents
to revolutionaries to terrorists to Anarchists. Each comes oV
poorly in
Conrad’s depiction. Verloc is lazy and conceited, and is also politically
ineVective, which causes Mr. Vladimir to demand ‘‘a series of outrages’’
(28) from him. Furthermore, Verloc works as a double agent. But his most
damning shortcoming is that he manages to get his brother-in-law blown up.
Michaelis, on the other hand, spends his time writing a voluminous, incomprehensible
memoir, while Karl Yundt is portrayed as a ‘‘swaggering spectre’’
(45) and ‘‘a disgusting old man’’ (50), who is ‘‘nursed by a blear-eyed old
woman, a woman he had years ago enticed away from a friend, and afterwards
had tried more than once to shake oV
into the gutter,’’ but he cannot
throw oV
this ‘‘indomitable snarling old witch’’ (45). As for Ossipon, Conrad
ridicules his devotion to the ideas of Cesare Lombroso, and Ossipon seems
more interested in seducing women than in engaging in politics. The final
blow against him comes in his stealing Winnie’s money and abandoning her
to her death. The Professor is in some ways portrayed as the most politically
committedofthe group.Heisreferredtoas‘‘the perfect anarchist’’(67),and
in many ways he is. His sole goal is to blow up established society and start
again. Conrad criticizes his views, but, more important, the Professor’s views
are tainted with his own personal disappointment; thus, his agenda appears
to be largely his way of getting back at the world.
Conrad’s middle period
Given such a negative portrait of the political radicals in the novel, one
might assume that Conrad sides with the established governments, but he
does not. At least, he does not side with them except perhaps to suggest that
they area poor alternativeto the revolutionaries and Anarchists.His attitude
is particularly apparent in his portrait of Mr. Vladimir, who undoubtedly is
meant to represent the unnamed Russian government. Mr. Vladimir’s cynicismin
orderingVerloctoblowup theGreenwichMeridianObservatoryis
particularly heinous since he is not making a political statement but simply
seeking to throw blame for the incident onto the revolutionaries. Even
though the bombing is unsuccessful, it still produces much of the eVect for
which Mr. Vladimir had hoped, since an outcry is raised against the revolutionaries.
Furthermore, the bombing results in the deaths of Stevie, Verloc,
and Winnie. The way Conrad intimately acquaints the reader with the
Verloc family and their plight makes their fate (which is directly linked to
Mr. Vladimir’s demands) particularly poignant, but none of this matters
to Mr. Vladimir, who is unconcerned with the human cost of his actions.
Conrad further demonstrates his disapproval of the established governments
in his portrayal of Sir Ethelred and his secretary, Toodles, and in his
portrayal of the British police. Despite his important political position, Sir
Ethelred appears to be a fool (as does Toodles). Nor does the political
infighting and the way that Chief Inspector Heat and the Assistant Commissioner
attempt to circumvent each other present a coherent eVort or one that
is philosophically committed to the suppression of crime, as each man seeks
to outdo the other and avoid being shown up.Worse, though, is the way they
handleVerloc’s murder, which appears to have been covered up at the end of
the novel. The police seem to make no investigation into its cause or
perpetrator.Furthermore, they use Verloc in the same way as Mr. Vladimir
does. Verloc provides them with information in exchange for their looking
the other way toward his questionable activities. In fact, in some ways, the
government authorities and the political radicals seem more similar than
diVerent. Both groups eschew legal barriers to obtain what they want. In the
end, Mr. Vladimir’s and British police’s use of Verloc diVers little from
Verloc’s use of Stevie. Each casts aside considerations of individuals in
pursuing political ends.
The Secret Agent is the second of Conrad’s overtly political novels. Unlike
Nostromo, which was set in developing Latin America, The Secret Agent is set
in theveryheart ofWestern civilization. The importanceofthe settingin The
Secret Agent cannot be overemphasized. That the events of the novel occur
where they do, allows Conrad to comment on both revolutionaryactivities as
well as onWestern civilization itself. As was true of the setting at the opening
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
of ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ at the time in which The Secret Agent is set, England
was the most powerful nation on earth, both economically and politically. It
was also the largest nation in the world, if one includes all of its colonial
territories. Furthermore, as noted earlier, it viewed itself, and was viewed by
others, as the height of Western civilization and civilized progress, and
London was the epicenter of England’s political, economic, and cultural
progress. The fact that anarchy and chaos exist in this location is deeply
ironic. Conrad often takes European characters and places them outside a
Western settinginorderto seehowtheywillrespond.Typically, once outside
civilization, they become wholly uncivilized. In his works set outsideWestern
civilization, Conrad reveals the inherent disorder of the world and thereby
shows the order of Western civilization to be merely a facade imposed on a
non-Western setting. In The Secret Agent, however, Conrad reveals anarchy
and chaos in the very heart of Western civilization. By setting the novel in
London, Conrad shows that even the seeming order of civilization in the
West is illusory, as both political radicals and political conservatives work
counter to social order.
As he does in his other political novels, Conrad also juxtaposes political
issues against human issues. In The Secret Agent, radical politics intermingle
with the Verloc family’s attempts to exist in a world in which, as Winnie
concludes, ‘‘things do not stand much looking into’’ (136). During the course
of the novel, Conrad chroniclesWinnie’s lifefrom the time she wasayoung
girl until the time the novel is set and demonstrates that throughout her
life she has had to make compromises. As a young girl, she protected Stevie
from her father’s violence, placing herself in harm’s way by doing so. As a
young woman, she fell in love with the butcher’s son but was forced to give
him up because of her responsibilities to her brother and infirm mother. In
the end, she marries Verloc not because she loves him but because he
represents financial security and because he is willing to let Winnie’s mother
and brother live with them. Hers is more of a business transaction than a
romance, she providing the services of a wife for Verloc in exchange for him
providing the services of husband for herself and her family. Winnie makes
this choice because societypresents herwith noviable alternatives. Similarly,
Winnie’s mother applies for charity retirement housing thinking that Verloc
will be less burdened with only Stevie and Winnie to support. Again, social
circumstances dictate her self-sacrifice. In the plight of Winnie and her
mother, we see Conrad’s commentary on the desperate circumstances of
women, particularly working-class and middle-class women.
Along with the plight of women, Conrad’s juxtaposing the political and
human plot lines serves to link the two such that they become inextricable
Conrad’s middle period
and share not only the same participants but also the same plot lines. In
otherwords,by employing twointertwiningplotlines,Conradforces the
reader to compare and contrast them. The result is the human toll of the
political activism. The senseless attempt on the Greenwich Observatory
brings about the deaths of the three members of Verloc family. Despite
theironyofConrad’snarrative voice,despiteVerloc’sincompetent machinations,
despite Winnie’s and Stevie’s obscurity in British society, the reader
sympathizeswiththe humantragedythat resultsfromthepolitics.Conrad
makes a good choice when he includes Stevie among his characters. In the
end, Conrad shows that even an individual like Stevie, whom many would
have seen to be a very small contributor to society, is worthy of value and
sympathy.Verlocnever recognizesthisfact.Verlocwas ‘‘underthemistaken
impression that the value of individuals consists in what they are in
themselves, he could not possibly comprehend the value of Stevie in the
eyesof Mrs.Verloc’’ (177).ItisWinnie’srealizationthatVerloccould seeno
value in Stevie, as much as Verloc’s actual role in Stevie’s death, that causes
her to murder him.
In the end, as is so often true in Conrad, the human becomes much more
important than the idea or the object. The ideals of the political radicals and
political conservatives fallbythe wayside, while the value of human existence
and the struggle for human survival takes precedence in The Secret Agent.
A
Set
of
Six
Critical opinion on the stories in this volume has been mixed, with most
commentators considering them to be lesser works, but this view is not
wholly borne out, as a variety of interesting issues arise in this collection.
‘‘The Brute’’ is a story about a ship, The Apse Family, that seems to bring
about someone’s death on every trip. On one trip in particular, the captain’s
wife and niece are aboard, and the niece, who has fallen in love with the chief
mate, is killed when she is thrown overboard by a piece of the ship’s
machinery. Later, in a kind of poetic justice, the ship is run aground when
Wilmot, the second mate, leaves his post while flirting with a female passenger.
The story’s primary significance lies in its narrative method and in its
feminine terminology. ‘‘The Brute’’ contains one of the most striking
examples of Conrad’s attempt to place the reader in the place of the characters’
experience. The storyopens with the narrator entering the Three Crows
bar and hearing another character remark:
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
That fellowWilmotfairlydashedher brainsout,andagoodjob,too! ...
I was glad when I heard she got the knock from somebody at last.
Sorry enough for poor Wilmot, though. That man and I used to be
chums at one time. Of course that was the end of him. A clear case if
there ever was one. No way out of it. None at all. (105–6)
Not until several pages later,however,do the narrator and thereader discover
that the speaker was referring to a ship and not a woman. The eVect of this
narrative technique is, of course, that both the narrator and the reader
mistake the subject of conversation, and the reader experiences the events
as if he or she were in the place of the narrator at the exact moment the
conversation occurs. This conversation also points to a pattern that occurs
throughout the story of associating The Apse Family with women, and
hence the changeable and murderous nature of the ship is projected onto
the female characters and onto women in general, thus implying that women
pose a threat to the male world of the sea – and perhaps the male world in
general. Such a view of women opens up various possibilities for analyzing
the role of women in the world of the sea, and as was true in The Rescue,
‘‘The Brute’’ seems to represent women as a disruptive element in male
communities.
‘‘Il Conde’’ is a tale of lost innocence. Living in Naples for his health, a
Count (probably Polish) lives a life of cultured comfort, pleasure, and safety
until one evening when he is robbed at knife point. He only loses a small
amount of money and an inexpensive watch, but after the thief leaves, the
Count realizes that he had forgotten about a gold coin that he carries in case
of an emergency. Shortly thereafter, he goes to a cafe´ to get something to eat
and to calm his nerves and he is again accosted by the thief, who accuses the
Count of deceitfully withholding the gold coin. The thief verbally abuses
the Count before leaving. Devastated, the Count confesses to the narrator
that he can no longer live in Naples. The two encounters succeed in destroying
the Count’s world, but for diVerent reasons. The first encounter rudely
awakens him from his life of comfort and safety such that he can never feel
safe again. In this incident, Conrad demonstrates again the fact that human
beings ultimately cannot control their environment. The later encounter,
although further solidifying the eVect of the earlier one, aVects the Count’s
view of the world in a diVerent way. In this case, the thief questions the
Count’s honor and integrity, in eVect accusing him of being dishonest. With
his honor in question and with his cultured and comfortable existence
shattered, the Count can no longer face living in Naples and leaves to go to
what will likely be his death.
Conrad’s middle period
‘‘The Duel’’ is set in Napoleonic France and is the tale of a duel between
D’Hubert and Feraud, two oYcers in the French army. D’Hubert is sent to
place Feraud under house arrest because of Feraud’s involvement in a duel
with a civilian. Feraud considers this an insult and challenges D’Hubert to a
duel. Over the course of a number of years, the two fight a series of duels
(always instigated by Feraud) in which each combatant is wounded but not
killed. After Napoleon’s defeat, Feraud challenges D’Hubert to a final duel.
WhenFeraud misseswith both shots, D’Hubert claimsFeraud’s life as forfeit
but spares him, thus ending the duel.
Many commentators have considered this tale to be a slight one, but
several issues are of interest. As he does with the narrator in ‘‘Falk’’ and
Razumov, Conrad presents a character, D’Hubert, who finds himself in an
untenable situation in which he is the victim of an irrational and absurd
world. He feels helpless to escape from the nightmarish duel: ‘‘For years
General D’Hubert had been exasperated and humiliated by an atrocious
absurdity imposed upon him by this man’s [Feraud’s] savage caprice’’
(256). As happens elsewhere, Conrad emphasizes the fact that human beings
have limited control of their existence. Furthermore, a subtle questioning of
Western values appears in the story. The duel proceeds within an accepted
code of behavior in a civilized community, but Conrad seems to question
such a view. He presents the duel as a nightmare as D’Hubert remarks, ‘‘It
was all like a very wicked and harassing dream’’ (182). D’Hubert finally
concludes, ‘‘The problem was how to kill the adversary. Nothing short of
that would free him from this imbecile nightmare’’ (251). The irrationality of
the duel (which the dream imageryunderscores) as well as the fact that these
men are trying to kill one another over a code of honor both bring Western
values into question, and their behavior seems anything but civilized. In this
story, as elsewhere, Conrad is suspicious of any idea that takes precedence of
human beings and human life, particularly an idea with as little justification
as the duel, which has no basis except in Feraud’s mind. If only Feraud
accepted the justification for the duel, then Conrad would merely be commenting
on Feraud’s irrationality. Everyone else in the story, however, also
accepts the necessity of the duel. Feraud never explains why he challenges
D’Hubert,andD’Hubertrefusestosay,reluctantlyfightingFeraud whenever
challenged. With an approving community standing witness, both men risk
their lives for no reason. Conrad it seems portrays not a civilized world but
rather one gone mad. He further critiques the duel when the last challenge
occurs just before D’Hubert is to marry. While D’Hubert is a victim of
Feraud’s irrationality, he does not have to engage Feraud this final time.
A quiet word to the authorities, and Feraud would have been back under
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
house arrest, never knowing D’Hubert’s role in his capture. Instead,
D’Hubert in eVect makes the same choice that Jim does: choosing an issue
of honor over a human bond. D’Hubert is simply luckier than Jim and does
not die in the process. Nevertheless, given his impending wedding as well as
his knowledge of the duel’s baselessness,D’Hubert’s decision to meetFeraud’s
challenge appears even more suspect than does Jim’s decision at the end of
Lord Jim.
‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’ is perhaps the least substantive story in this collection.
Written shortly after Nostromo, it is set in South America but contains none
of Nostromo’s scope or complexity. Gaspar Ruiz is a simple, strong man,
unjustly condemned to the firing squad for deserting the revolutionary
forces. Somehow he survives and is nursed back to health by a young
aristocratic Royalist woman. The revolutionaries have ruined her family,
and the woman wants to avenge their loss. Ruiz avoids recapture as a result
of an earthquake, during which he saves the lives of the woman and General
Robles, who had sought to capture Ruiz. As a result, Ruiz is pardoned and
soon rises to a prominent position among the revolutionaries. The woman,
who has now become Ruiz’s wife, however, spurs him to avenge her losses,
andRuiz risesup against the revolutionaryforces and beginsa warofrevenge
against them. Later, the revolutionaries capture Ruiz’s wife and daughter.
During therescue attempt, the cannon mounting breaks, andRuiz servesasa
human mount, having the cannon placed on his back. The rescue is successful,
butRuiz’s back is brokenin the process, and he dies just after hearing his
wife profess her love for him. Shortly thereafter, she commits suicide by
leaping into a chasm. ‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’ considers the issue of betrayal that
appears so often in Conrad’s works, and, as is true elsewhere, betrayal in
‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’ represents a breach of community. Somewhat unique to this
story, though, the issue of betrayal is linked to politics, more specifically
political betrayal, as Gaspar is betrayed by both the revolutionaries and the
Royalists. In this fact, we see Conrad once again demonstrating his suspicion
of politics in general as he rejects both revolutionary and conservative
politics. Conrad shows how the individual is so often caught between such
larger forces,asRuizis thevictimof bothRoyalists andrevolutionaries andis
sacrificed to their political ends.
‘‘The Informer’’isan accountof Anarchism andis an interestingprecursor
to The SecretAgent and UnderWestern Eyes. The story concerns an Anarchist
groupthatispatronizedby an aristocratic womanwho seemsto seeitallasa
game. One of the Anarchists, Sevrin, falls in love with her. The group later
discovers that an informer has infiltrated them, and so they set a trap in
which they stage a fake raid on the house where they work. In the process,
Conrad’s middle period
Sevrin, who turns out to be the informer, gives himself up out of fear that the
Professor upstairs will detonate a bomb, killing the woman he loves. In this
story, Conrad presents an example of an individual who rejects an idea
(loyalty to the police) in favor of preserving the woman he loves (unworthy
as sheisof his devotion).As almost always occursin Conrad’sworks, human
relationships are more important than ideas. ‘‘The Informer’’ is also significant
in its depiction of Anarchism. The narrator of the story has a perfect
horror of Anarchists and considers them to be madmen.He says, ‘‘anarchists
in general were simply inconceivable to me mentally, morally, logically,
sentimentally, and even physically’’ (97). One evening, though, he meets
Mr. X, an Anarchist who relates Sevrin’s tale, and the narrator finds the
experience extremely troubling. He contemplates Mr. X and thinks, ‘‘He was
alive and European; he had the manner of good society, wore a coat and hat
like mine, and had pretty near the same taste in cooking. It was too frightful
to think of ’’ (76). What frightens the narrator is that Mr. X reminds him of
himself andrepresents the underminingof the narrator’sWestern values and
society notby some madman but ratherby someone verymuch like himself.
‘‘The Anarchist’’ is a somewhat misnamed tale about a man who is labeled
an Anarchist but whois clearly nothingof the sort.Paul,aParisianworkman,
is celebrating his birthday one night at a restaurant and has too much to
drink. Anarchists at a neighboring table fire his anger with tales of social
injustice, which eventually lead to Paul shouting Anarchist slogans. Paul and
the Anarchists are arrested, and he is convicted and sent to jail. Upon his
release, he can no longer find work in France because of his reputation.
Eventually, he falls in with Anarchists and participates in a bank robbery.
Arrested again,heis sentencedto prisononSt.Joseph’s island.At one point,
a riot breaks out, andPaul findsa gun anda small boat.Two Anarchists join
him in his escape, but when a rescue boat comes in sight Paul shoots the
Anarchistsandthrowstheir bodiesoverboard.Atthetimeofthestory,Paulis
employed by Harry Gee, who exploits him, spreading rumors about his
Anarchism so that he cannot leave the island on which they live and find
work elsewhere.
The talepresentsa character, like Razumov,D’Hubert, and the narratorof
‘‘Falk,’’ who finds himself in a situation beyond his control. As a punishment
for his drunken statements against social injustice, he is sent to jail and then
can no longer find work. In this way, the story emphasizes the irrationality
and absurdity of human existence. ‘‘The Anarchist’’ also comments on the
idea of politics, particularly radical politics. During the course of the story,
the main character is used by the Anarchists and his lawyer for political
ends without regardfor the consequences. Conrad criticizes the Anarchists in
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
the story, much as he does elsewhere in his fiction. As he does in those
instances, however, Conrad’s critique of radical politics does not imply his
endorsing conservative politics. At the beginning of the story, the French
authorities putPaul in jail on the basis of drunken statements, and at the end
of the story Harry Gee, an arch anti-Anarchist, exploits Paul just as much as
the Anarchists did earlier in the story.
Under
Western
Eyes
Under Western Eyes is perhaps Conrad’s most human novel, in that it most
clearly opposes human relations and emotions against fixed ideas. The third
and last of Conrad’s overtly political novels, it is usually considered to be
among his best works.
The novel is a kind of frame narrative in which an unnamed British
teacher of foreign languages reconstructs events in the life of Kirylo Sidorovitch
Razumov. The tale begins with Razumov, a student at St. Petersburg
University, preparing to write an essay that he hopes will win a medal and
thus guarantee the success of his future career. Razumov is a young man
without ties. He has no family, although he is the unacknowledged illegitimatesonofPrinceK—.
Razumovisalsowithoutanysignificanttiesto politics,
but his independence from politics abruptly changes. On returning to his
rooms one evening, he discovers a fellow student, Victor Haldin, waiting for
him. Haldin has assassinated a political oYcial and evaded capture.He comes
to Razumov believing him to be sympathetic to the cause. In reality, Razumov
is only mildly sympathetic and is considerably disturbed by Haldin’s
presence. Razumov recognizes that he would be seen as a co-conspirator,
his career ruined, should Haldin be discovered. Wishing to rid himself of
Haldin, Razumov agrees to help him escape by arranging for a sleigh driver,
Ziemianitch, to spirit him away. The plan falls through when Razumov
discovers the driver in a drunken slumber. Feeling hopelessly compromised,
Razumov convinces himself that he abhors Haldin and his actions and
determines to turn inHaldin to the authorities. After betrayingHaldin, guilt
haunts Razumov. Unable to return to his previous existence, in the end,
Razumov decides to work for the authorities as a double agent infiltrating the
ex-patriot revolutionary center in Geneva. Razumov convinces himself that
heis protectingRussiafromrevolutionaryactivities, butheis also motivated
by revenge against Haldin and his associates. Razumov is remarkably successful
in winning the confidence of the revolutionaries and begins reporting
on their activities. In Geneva, Razumov also meets Nathalia Haldin, Victor’s
Conrad’s middle period
sister, and is eventually won over by her pure and honest personality.
Troubled by lingering guilt over his betrayal of Haldin, and motivated by
Nathalia’s frank honesty, Razumov determines to confess his role in Haldin’s
capture, first to Nathalia and then to the ex-patriot revolutionaries. As a
result of his confession, Nikita, a brutal member of the revolutionaries (and a
double agent), bursts Razumov’s eardrums. After this, unable to hear an
oncoming streetcar, Razumov is run over and severely injured. Once recovered
enough from his injuries to leave the hospital, Razumov returns to
Russia, living out what remains of his life in the rural countryside.
Under Western Eyes focuses on four major issues: moral and psychological
conflict, politics, human relationships, and the Western perception of the
East. Although UnderWestern Eyesis a political novel, it is primarily, as are so
many of Conrad’s other works, a novel about moral and psychological
conflict. Razumov experiences this conflict as he wrestles with the consequences
of his betrayal ofHaldin.When Razumov initially betrays him to the
authorities, he thinks he has done the right thing, feeling that Haldin had
killed people and had directly threatened Razumov himself by threatening
Russia. Razumov then believes he can go back to his life before the incident,
but he cannot. Although he is unable to admit it to himself, Razumov is
racked with guilt almost from the outset and finds he can no longer concentrate
on his studies, ultimately giving them up and turning instead to revenge
against those whom he believes have ruined his life. In the end, though, his
struggle against guilt is too much for him, and he concludes, ‘‘perdition is my
lot’’ (362).
Conrad, however, wishes us to see beyond Razumov’s personal plight. As
he does so often, Conrad employs individual characters to comment on
humanity as a whole, and in Under Western Eyes we see the workings of
Conrad’s view of the universe and the nature of human existence as well.
Razumov is consistently subject to the whims of fate and shows little or no
control overhis existence.Heis helplesstopreventHaldin’sdrawinghiminto
the revolutionaryconflict, and the atmosphere ofsuspicion that surrounds all
ofRussian society furtherprevents Razumovfromavoidinginvolvement.He
believes that he will be found complicit in the bombing and his career will
be wrecked in the process. Seeking to control his existence, he decides to
betrayHaldin,butinsodoinghedoes nothingtoavoidthefatehehadfeared
and in fact ends up worse. His career is ruined, and he becomes a haunted
creature. At other junctures in the novel, Razumov again is at the mercy of
fate. Had Ziemianitch not been drunk, perhaps Razumov might have been
able to escape his predicament, but chance would have it that Ziemianitch
chose that particular night to get drunk. Later, we learn that after his
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
interview with Razumov regarding Haldin, Councillor Mikulin ‘‘would have
simply dropped him [Razumov] for ever’’ (306) – except for another quirk of
fate. Mikulin assumes another position in the government and realizes that
he can make good use of Razumov: ‘‘He saw great possibilities of special
usefulness in that uncommon young man on whom he had a hold already’’
(307). Later, that Razumov andNataliaHaldin happen to be in the same city,
that Nikita happens to be present when Razumov confesses, and, perhaps
most symbolically, that Razumov happens to wander out in front of the
streetcar just when it happens to be traveling past, all combine to demonstrate
the lack of controlRazumov has over his existence and the fact that even when
he tries to control his life, as when he chooses to confess or chooses to betray
Haldin, he seems unable to change anything about his fate. He is buVeted
about by the winds of chance and can do nothing to avoid it. In Razumov’s
example, Conrad seems to be making a more general statement about the
nature of the universe and of human existence itself. Like Razumov, human
beings find themselves in a world in which they believe they can control their
lives, but in realitypolitical and social entities eliminate much of their ability
to do so, and, even more disturbing, human beings have no control over what
events will occur that may draw them in and forever alter their existence. This
theme appears frequently throughout Conrad’s writings.
The political issues that Conrad tackles in Under Western Eyes are
also familiar ones: autocracy and revolution. Conrad investigates the workings
of the Russian government and the machinations of its revolutionary
opponents. During the course of the novel, Conrad reveals a government
that protects its power jealously and seems to work outside established laws.
The result is a bureaucracy that fosters suspicion, intrigue, and repression.
ToWesterneyes,Haldin’s arrivalin Razumov’srooms shouldpresage nothing
more than some inconvenience, since Razumov was not involved in the
assassination. The novelis set inRussia, however, and Razumov immediately
sees his situation as nearly hopeless. He knows that if anyone were to
see Haldin coming or leaving he would be implicated and his future
ruined. As it is, even though Razumov does the government a great service
byturning Haldin in, he remains under suspicion, and in the end his futureis
destroyed just as he had feared. Similarly, despite Mikulin’s good service to
the government, he also is later destroyed:
during one of those State trials which astonish and puzzle the average
plain man who reads the newspapers, by a glimpse of unsuspected
intrigues. And in the stir of vaguely seen monstrosities, in that
momentary, mysterious disturbance of muddy waters, Councillor
Conrad’s middle period
Mikulin went under, dignified, with only a calm, emphatic protest of his
innocence – nothing more. (305)
Accusations, whether false or true, can ruin a person, and Razumov must try
to negotiate precisely such a precarious environment when he discovers
Haldin in his rooms.
Given his indictment of Russian autocracy, one might expect Conrad’s
sympathies to lie with the revolutionaries – but they do not. Unlike many
political novels (but typical of Conrad’s politics), he condemns both sides.
Conrad portrays the revolutionaries as ineVectual, deranged, or wrongheaded.
Peter Ivanovitch may be good with theoretical politics (although
Conrad represents his views as silly), but he seems ineVective with practical
politics. In fact, this disparity is most apparent when he engages in his
theoretical work. While dictating his ideas on the betterment of humanity,
PeterIvanovitch treatsTeklaas little betterthanaslave. Similarly,Madamede
S— appearsghoulish and not wholly sane, and although she maysupport the
revolutionaries while alive, she fails to provide for them when dead. Finally,
Nikita is a double agent and a ‘‘fiend’’ (as Sophia Antonovna calls him) who
enjoys killing and brutality. Nor do the revolutionary students come oV
much better. Kostia is an ineVectual fool, and the red-nosed student and
Haldin are described as being intoxicatedwith idealisticdreams (31).Perhaps
the most telling evidence of Conrad’s position regarding the revolutionaries,
however, has to do with the assassination itself, in which Conrad carefully
chronicles the fact that a number of innocent bystanders die in the attack.
This incident serves as a microcosm of Conrad’s primary point: in the
crossfire between the autocratic government and the revolutionary cause
the innocent become the greatest victims.
In the novel, both the revolutionaries and the Russian government
come oV
poorly, as each digests and then discards enemies, friends, and
bystanders alike. Each camp tramples humanity in the progress of its cause.
Conrad expresses his most pessimistic views in his ‘‘Author’s Note’’ to the
novel:
The ferocityand imbecility of an autocratic rule rejecting alllegalityand
in fact basing itself upon complete moral anarchism provokes the no
less imbecile and atrocious answer of a purely Utopian revolutionism
encompassing destruction by the first means to hand, in the strange
conviction that a fundamental change of hearts must follow the
downfall of any given human institutions. These people are unable to
see that all they can eVect is merely a change of names. The oppressors
and the oppressed are all Russians together; and the world is brought
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
once more face to face with the truth of the saying that the tiger cannot
change his stripes nor the leopard his spots. (x)
Conrad further shows his contempt for autocracy and revolution when the
narrator remarks, ‘‘It seems that the savage autocracy, no more than the
divine democracy, does not limit its diet exclusively to the bodies of its
enemies. It devours its friends and servants as well’’ (306). In this volatile
political climate, Razumov tries to avoid taking sides. He simply wants to be
left alone to pursue his studies and accomplish his apolitical goals. The
political world of revolution and autocracy, however, does not allow for
neutrality, and Razumov is alternately swept up first onto one side and then
onto the other, ultimately discovering that he can escape neither and is in the
end crushed between them.
Conrad alsoinvestigates this political worldofrevolution and autocracyby
presenting these events from the narrator’s perspective, a Western European,
who views the actions of Eastern Europeans through the eyes of the West.
Conrad represents a fundamental diVerence between the world of the East
and the world of the West, one which most Westerners cannot comprehend
and can only see from their own perspective. In this way, Conrad attempts to
demonstrate that EasternEuropeis distinctfromWesternEurope,butatthe
same time, Conrad indicts the West for its insistence on viewing the world
solely through its own eyes and for its inability to see any other perspective.
Set against this world of politics, though, is the world of human relations.
This world first appears in the character of Ziemianitch. Razumov is told,
‘‘Saint or devil, night or day is all one to Ziemianitch when his heart is free
from sorrow’’ (29), but in so saying the keeper of the eating-house identifies
Ziemianitch’s priorities. Dedicated as he may be to the revolutionary cause,
human relations take precedence. The narrator remarks that ‘‘Ziemianitch’s
passionate surrender to sorrow and consolation had baZed’’ Razumov (31),
and Razumov himself notes that Ziemianitch’s drunkenness results from
lost love rather than from the ‘‘dream-intoxication of the idealist’’ (31).
Ziemianitch seals his views with his suicide later in the novel – resulting
not from political disappointment but rather from despair over losing a
woman (275–6).
The novelalso takesup the story ofHaldin’s mother and his sister livingin
Geneva and awaiting word of Victor. Their emotional attachment and dependency
on Victor is clear, and this relationship stands in sharp contrast to
the political world that swirls about them. For them, politics matter little.
The touching pictureof their devotion toVictor,as well asNatalia’s devotion
to her mother, diverge from the cold and often brutal political world.Politics
Conrad’s middle period
drastically disrupts their lives, however, when they learn thatVictor has been
executed for assassinating Mr.de P—.Victor’s mother despairs, and so when
Natalia learns that Razumov (of whom Victor has remarked favorably) has
come to Geneva, she is anxious to meet him, hoping to learn something of
her brother’s fate and ideally finding something with which to comfort her
mother.
Tekla also represents human emotion juxtaposed against political ideas.
Razumov first meets her while visiting the Chaˆteau Borel. Tekla’s situation
there is terrible, and she tells Razumov, ‘‘I have been starving for, I won’t say
kindness, but just for a little civility, for I don’t know how long’’ (233). She
has been mistreated by Peter Ivanovitch and the other revolutionaries and
says,‘‘Yes,ifyouweretogetill,ormeet some bittertrouble,youwouldfind
I am not a useless fool. You have only to let me know. I will come to you.
Iwill indeed.AndI will sticktoyou’’ (233).Teklaisa committedrevolutionary,
but for her, revolution is not theoretical and removed from humanity (as
it appears to be with Peter Ivanovitch and the others) but rather intimately
connected with human beings. She demonstrates her views in her service to
‘‘poor Andrei,’’ for whom she left a comfortable existence with her middle-
class family to live in squalor rather than accept the human misery that
resulted from the bureaucracy of which her family was a part. For her, the
revolution is to serve human beings, and she pledges to do just that, later
following through with her commitment when she assumes care of Razumov
after his accident.
The most important example, though, of Conrad’s emphasis on the preeminenceof
humanity over ideas appearsin therelationship betweenNatalia
and Razumov. As noted earlier, when Natalia hears that Razumov has come
to Geneva, she wants to meet him in hopes that he can provide some comfort
for her and her mother. Razumov’s feelings are quite diVerent, however. In a
journal entry written to Natalia, he comments on Victor and Natalia, ‘‘I
believed that I had in my breast nothing but an inexhaustible fund of anger
andhateforyouboth...AnddoyouknowwhatIsaidtomyself?Ishall steal
his sister’s soul from her’’ (358–9). In the end, though, Razumov recognizes
the simple purity of Natalia’s being and the genuine emotional attachment
she has for her brother and for Razumov as well. This results in a change of
heart:‘‘It wasasifyourpurebrowborealight which fellonme, searchedmy
heart and saved mefrom ignominy,from ultimate undoing. Andit savedyou
too . . . I felt that I must tell you that I had ended by loving you’’ (361).
Razumov had tried to convince himself that he opposed the revolutionaries
on conviction and thought his desire for revenge took precedence over all
else, but he discovers instead that ideas, such as patriotism and revenge,
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
matter little when compared to genuine human attachment. Later, Sophia
Antonovna remarks:
It was just when he believed himself safe and more – infinitely more –
when the possibility of being loved by that admirable girl first dawned
upon him, that he discovered that his bitterest railings, the worst
wickedness, the devil work of his hate and pride, could never cover up
the ignominy of the existence before him. There’s character in such a
discovery. (380)
Razumov himself expresses this same conclusion when he writes, ‘‘In giving
VictorHaldinup,it was myself, after all, whomIhave betrayed most basely’’
(361). In the end, humanity matters more than ideas, something Razumov
had not originally realized.EvenPeterIvanovitch seems to come toa similar
conclusion.When Sophia Antonovna tells the narrator ‘‘PeterIvanovitch has
united himself to a peasant girl,’’ the narrator exclaims, ‘‘Is he, then, living
actually in Russia? It’s a tremendous risk – isn’t it? And all for the sake of a
peasant girl. Don’t you think it’s very wrong of him?’’ But she merely
answers, ‘‘He just simply adores her’’ (381–2). In the end, Peter Ivanovitch
gives up his role as leader of the ex-patriot revolutionaries to live his life out
in obscurity with the woman he loves. He, too, chooses human bonds over
political ideas.
If there is a bright spot in this otherwise bleak tale, it is that Razumov
achieves a moral victory. At the crucial moment, Razumov chose humanity
over ideas, and so although Razumov lives what is left of his life in obscurity,
crippled and deaf, he has become a much more complete person than he was
earlier when he turned his back on humanity and betrayed Haldin and then
became consumed with misguided ideas of patriotism, hate, and revenge.
’Twixt
Land
and
Sea
In this collection of stories, Conrad returns once again to the sea after a
lengthyhiatus. Critics and readers at the time applauded this return, and the
collection became Conrad’s most financially successful book up until that
time.
Although all three stories are set in the world of the sea, ‘‘The Secret
Sharer’’ is less about events external to the individual than those that are
internal. Considered to be among Conrad’s finest short stories, the tale begins
with a young captain unsure of himself in his first command. One evening,
while alone on deck, he notices a man hanging onto the ship’s ladder. The
Conrad’s middle period
man, Leggatt, turns out to be the first mate of the Sephora. Leggatt had killed
an insubordinate crew member during a storm and was being transported to
Bankok to stand trial when he escaped. The young captain feels a strange
aYnityfor Leggatt and hides him in his own quarters. The next day, Captain
Archibold of the Sephora arrives looking for Leggatt, but the young captain
does not reveal Leggatt’s presence. Several days later, the captain comes up
with a plan to help Leggatt. Since the ship has been becalmed, he brings it
dangerously close to shore on the pretext of trying to catch land breezes. His
real intent,however,istogiveLeggatthisbest chanceofbeingabletoswimto
land. During a tense scene in which the ship’s oYcers believe the captain to
have gone insane, Leggatt slips down the ship’s ladder and swims away.
Luckily, the captain spots the hat he had given Leggatt floating on the water
where it had fallen oV. The young captain is then able to use the hat as a
marker and successfully right the ship in time. An unexpected result of this
maneuver is that the captain gains the respect of the crew, who now assume
that he knew exactly what he was doing all along.
‘‘The Secret Sharer’’ is the psychological study of an unnamed young
captain’s struggle to demonstrate to himself that he is worthy to command.
More than this, though, the story is an investigation into the process by
which one attempts to come to a knowledge of oneself. Early in the story, the
young captain remarks,‘‘But what I felt most was my being a stranger to the
ship; and if all the truth must be told, I was somewhat of a stranger to
myself’’(93).Liketheyoung captain,all human beings imaginehowtheywill
respond to challenges. Jim does this in Lord Jim, but unlike Jim, the captain
remarks, ‘‘I wondered how far I should turn out faithful to that ideal
conception of one’s own personality every man sets up for himself secretly’’
(94). Untested by circumstances, the young captain wonders how he will
respond when challenged. The story, then, is the captain’s journey toward
fulfilling the role with which he has been entrusted. To do so, he must
demonstrate to himself and to his crew that he can command and meet
challenges. Leggatt is one of these challenges. As the narrator remarks, ‘‘In
this breathless pause at the threshold of a long passage we seemed to be
measuring our [his and his ship’s] fitness for a long and arduous enterprise,
the appointed task of both our existences to be carried out, far from all
human eyes, with only sky and sea for spectators and for judges’’ (92). With
the crew unaware of Leggatt’s existence, no outside forces can see or judge the
captain’s actions. He must face the challenges and make the decisions alone.
On the surface, the case seems quite straightforward. Leggatt has committed
a crime for which he was being held pending transfer to the proper judicial
authorities. The captain’s duty would seem to lie in Leggatt’s return to the
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Sephora. Because he feels an aYnity for Leggatt, though, the young captain
begins to sympathize with Leggatt’s plight. Conrad is careful to note a
number of ways in which Leggatt resembles the young captain, and in this
way Leggatt becomes the captain’s double or darker self. As a result, the
young captain decides to help Leggatt, going so far as to conceal his presence
from his crew and from the captain of the Sephora.
When the young captain first encounters Leggatt, he also encounters a
moral dilemma.He must determine the degree of Leggatt’s guilt, and he must
determine his own responsibility to both Leggatt and the law. In the end, the
captain comes to see mitigating circumstances in Leggatt’s situation and
chooses to act outside the requirements of the law, which are unyielding in
requiring Leggatt to stand trial. Unlike Archibold, who believes that the only
option is to give upLeggatt ‘‘to the law’’ (118), the young captain chooses to
follow his own judgment and allows Leggatt to swim oV
quietly to the island
of Koh-ring.
There has been much debate concerning the young captain’s choice. Some
have argued that Conrad sympathizes with the captain’s choice to reject
the unbending ruleoflawin favorof hisown personal judgment –ina sense
rejecting an idea over a humanity. Others argue that Conrad is critical of the
captain’s action because he disregards the law and places his ship in danger.
Conrad leaves evidence to support both views, and there is no easy answer to
this problem. In anycase, though, before Leggatt accomplishes his escape, the
captain must face a more practical challenge to his abilities. In giving Leggatt
his best chancetoswimto shore safely, theyoung captain tests to the limit his
own abilitiesandthoseofhiscrew.Nevertheless,theresultisthatbothheand
his crew recognize him as captain and able to fulfill that role. Consequently,
because of his experience with Leggatt, whereas the youngcaptain was unsure
of himselfatthe openingofthe story,bytheendofthe storyhehas cometoa
greater knowledge of himself and his abilities.
‘‘Freya of the Seven Isles’’ is a story of anti-melodrama. Freya Nelson, the
daughterofa Danish tobacco planter,isinlovewithJasper Allen,anEnglish
trader and the proud owner of a fine ship, the Bonito. A Dutch Lieutenant
Heemskirk,however,wishestohaveFreyafor himself.Atthistime,the Dutch
and English are competing fiercely for trade and territories in the region.
Freya’s father fears the Dutch authorities, and as a result Freya believes that
her father will oppose her marriage to Allen, so she plans to elope with him
on the day after her twenty-first birthday. Allen visits Freya one last time
before their planned elopement, but while there Heemskirk happens to see
them kiss. After Allen leaves, Heemskirk, insane with jealousy, makes advances
toward Freya, at which point she slaps him.Freya’s father comes upon
Conrad’s middle period
them just after this, and Heemskirk is forced to leave in silent pain and fury.
The next morning Heemskirk follows Allen’s brig as it leaves the area and
later detains it. Heemskirk thus discovers by chance that, unbeknownst to
Allen, Schultz, Allen’s mate, has sold firearms to some of the local inhabitants,
Heemskirk then tows the Bonito to Makassar. On the way, however, he
deliberately releases the tow rope so that the ship will run aground on a reef
at high tide, making it impossible ever to salvage it. Heartbroken, Allen goes
mad and spends his days staring at the wreck. Discovering Allen’s condition,
Freya eventually wastes away and dies.
This story has the elements of a melodrama complete with an evil villain
(Heemskirk), good hero(Jasper Allen), and a romantic triangle, but even in
his more pedestrian pieces Conrad is not content to follow the crowd.
Although this story is a kind of melodrama, its conclusion is anything but
melodramatic. Heemskirk prevails and suVers no consequences for his evil
actions. In this overturning of the melodrama, Conrad makes a statement
regarding the nature of good and evil in the world. Clearly, Conrad argues
that no transcendental power directs the aVairs of humanity and intercedes
on their behalf. Instead, they are alone in the world and must confront their
fatewithout hopeof divineprotection,without confidence that they liveina
world of order and justice, and without the ability to exert any significant
control over their lives. In asserting such ideas, ‘‘Freya of the Seven Isles’’ is
certainly one of Conrad’s bleakest tales.
‘‘ASmile ofFortune’’ is an interestingcontrast to ‘‘Freya of the SevenIsles.’’
Both stories treat the question of fate in human existence, but each comes to
adiVerent conclusion. In ‘‘A Smile of Fortune,’’ a young captain arrives at a
tropical port intent on picking up a cargo of sugar. He carries a recommendation
lettertoaMr.Jacobus,andas soonasthe captain arrivesaMr.Jacobus
greetshim.It turnsout,though,thatthisMr.Jacobusisthebrother(Alfred)
of the man for whom the letter was meant (Ernest). The brothers are business
rivals, and Alfred is an outcast in the community. Ernest is an unpleasant
man, and theyoung captain begins spending time with Alfred while he waits
for bags in which to load the sugar. While visiting Alfred, the captain meets
Alfred’s illegitimate daughter, Alice. The young captain becomes taken with
the solitary young woman and one evening suddenly begins kissing her.
Alice frees herself from the captain’s embrace and flees the room. After she
leaves, the young captain sees Alfred and assumes that he has witnessed the
incident. The young captain and Alfred then work out an arrangement in
which the captain will get the bags he needs if he will also accept a cargo of
potatoes. The final surprise occurs when the captain arrives in Australia to
discover that a shortage has caused the price of potatoes to skyrocket.
The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Unlike ‘‘Freya of the Seven Isles,’’ in ‘‘A Smile of Fortune,’’ Conrad shows
the other side of fate when a young captain is forced to accept a cargo of
potatoes and later unexpectedly makes a huge profit from them. Regardless
of the diVerence in the outcome of the two stories, however, the message is
the same: human beings can neither predict nor control the course of their
lives. ‘‘A Smile of Fortune’’ also bears some similarity to ‘‘The Secret Sharer’’
in that in both stories a young captain must encounter diYculties and see
whether he is equal to the test. In this story, the young captain seems less
successful than the young captain in ‘‘The Secret Sharer.’’ In addition to
commenting on fate in human lives, ‘‘A Smile of Fortune’’ also considers
the inequity of treatment in the cases of Alice and a mulatto boy. Ernest
Jacobus abuses the mulatto boy, who is presumably his illegitimate son, but
receives no social censure, unlike his brother Alfred, who is ostracized from
society along with his illegitimate daughter Alice. Conrad exposes the hypocrisy
of society as well as its racial bias. It seems that it is one thing to father
out of wedlock a child with a non-Western woman but another thing entirely
to father one with a Western woman.
The publication of ’Twixt Land and Sea would mark the end of Conrad’s
most productive period and the period that most commentators feel represents
Conrad’s most important work. What would follow would engender
numerous debates over why Conrad’s later work diverged so much from his
earlier work.
Chapter
5
Conrad’s
later
period
Probably all readers have noted a distinct shift in Conrad’s work that
appeared after UnderWestern Eyes. Early assessments, such as that of Thomas
C. Moser, Douglas Hewitt, and Albert J. Guerard, regarded this shift to be a
decline in literary quality. Most readers would cite The Shadow-Line as a
notable exception to any view of the diVerences between Conrad’s later works
and his earlier works. Victory is also cited as an exception at times, although
opinion is much more widely divided over it. In addition, Chance has its
supporters. For many years, most commentators on Conrad’s works have
tended to agree with the assessments of Moser, Guerard and others. Some
notable exceptions were John A. Palmer, Daniel R. Schwarz, and Gary
Geddes, who, in diVerent ways, argued for a re-assessment of Conrad’s later
works, as have, more recently, Robert Hampson and Susan Jones, for
example. Regardless of whether one sees Conrad’s later works (excepting
The Shadow-Line and perhaps Victory) as representing a decline in quality
or whether one sees them as representing a shift in direction, it is impossible
nottorecognize thatadiVerence exists between these works and those of his
earlier periods.
Chance
Chance was Conrad’s first financially successful novel and was generally well
receivedbythe critics and public when it was first published. The novel is the
last of the Marlow narratives, and many commentators have felt that the
Marlow who appears in this novel bears little resemblance to the Marlow of
‘‘Youth,’’ ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’ and Lord Jim. Chance is largely the story of
Flora de Barral, but it begins with her father, a man who rises in the financial
world more from luck and the confidence he can inspire in others than
through financial acumen. The result is as one might expect: de Barral’s
financial house of cards eventually comes crashing down, and he is sent to
prison for fraud. Just before Flora’s unscrupulous governess absconds with
100 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
what little she can, she berates young Flora, telling her how useless and
unloveable she is. Flora is devastated by this experience and becomes deeply
depressed. Left alone, she is befriended by her neighbors the Fynes. Several
years later,Marlowis stayingin the countrynear the Fynes, andMarlow and
Mr. Fyne become friends. Flora periodically stays with the Fynes and one day
leaves, sending a letter to Mrs. Fyne telling her that she has run oV
with and
intends to marryMrs. Fyne’s brother, Captain Anthony, whom she has met at
the Fynes. Flora does not love Anthonybut accepts his proposal nevertheless.
The two marry just before Flora’s father is released from prison, and Flora
and her father then join Anthony on his ship. Flora’s father has been greatly
aVected by his prison experience and resents the fact that Flora has married.
He hates Anthony and life on the ship. One night, Powell, one of the ship’s
oYcers, happens to see into Anthony’s cabin from a skylight and notices de
Barral putting something into Anthony’s drink while he has stepped away.
Powell then goes down to warn Anthony. Confronted by the degree to which
Flora’s father hates him, and tormented by the thought that Flora does not
love him, Anthony tells Flora that he will give her up, but Flora replies that
she does not want to be given up.While Anthony escorts her back to bed, de
Barral drinks the poisoned liquid, realizing that he cannot have Flora to
himself. Some years later, Anthony dies in an accident, and the novel ends
with the union of Flora and Powell.
Chance employs the most complicated narrative method among Conrad’s
later novels, and many commentators, beginning with Henry James, have
wondered whether the novel simply privileges form over content. Chance
certainly does not have the same bewildering narrative complexities of Lord
Jim and Nostromo, for instance, but the narrative does move in both a linear
and circular pattern, similar to Ford Madox Ford’s contemporaneous The
Good Soldier, and introduces continually more information each time the
narrative circles back again.Unlike some of Conrad’s earlier works, however,
Chance’s narrative complexitydoes not seem to bear the weight of the moral
and epistemological complexities of Nostromo and Lord Jim, in which form
and content seem to reinforce one another.
All of this said, Chance certainly has points to recommend it. It is the most
extended discussion of women and women’s issues in Conrad’s works, and,
unlike anyof Conrad’s other novels, Chance is really a novel about a woman.
The diYculty is in determining where Conrad comes down on the issue. On
the one hand, Mrs. Fyne’s feminist ideas come across quite negatively, and
she is made to appear shrewish toward her husband and rabid in her views.
Her views are further undermined by the fact that she seems to abandon
them when they are inconvenient, particularly when Flora runs oV
with
Conrad’s later period 101
Mrs. Fyne’s brother. Flora is in eVect simply following some of Mrs. Fyne’s
own views. On the other hand, Conrad deals with Flora and her plight with a
great deal of sympathy, both because she has been treated poorly by life but
also because she has been treated poorly because of her position as a woman.
In the latter case, Conrad seems to be sympathizing with the plight of women
in society.
Chance also takes up an issue that appears throughout Conrad’s work: the
idea of chance itself. The title comes from the idea that so much that occurs
in the novel results from chance. Some of the chance happenings are positive,
some are negative, but the common feature among them all is the inability of
one to control one’s existence. The novel also deals with the idea of chance
somewhat diVerently from other instances in which it appears prominently in
Conrad’s works. In Under Western Eyes or ‘‘Falk’’ or ‘‘The Duel,’’ chance
negatively aVects the lives of Razumov,D’Hubert, and the unnamed narrator
of ‘‘Falk.’’By contrast,in ‘‘A SmileofFortune,’’ chanceaVects the protagonist
quite positively.In Chance,however, numerous examples of chance appear in
the lives of the characters, some positive and some negative. In other words,
it is in this novel that Conrad most extensively investigates the workings of
chance in the lives of human beings, and although the novel ends happily
(unlike most of Conrad’s works), Conrad implies that it might just as easily
have ended otherwise because in a world in which one has no control over
one’s existence, one can also never predict its outcome. As a result, Chance is
one of the more interesting statements on the nature of the universe and the
nature of human existence because despite its bright ending, the novel’s
underlying philosophy remains as dark as the bleakest of Conrad’s other
works.
Victory
Victory was Conrad’s first novel after the commercial success of Chance, and
it benefited from that success. The novel is about Alex Heyst, a solitary and
philosophically skeptical man, who lives essentially alone on an island and is
suddenly drawn out of his solitary existence when one day he travels with
Captain Davidson, a ship owner, to the mainland. While Davidson is oV
for
several weeks, Heyst stays at Schomberg’s hotel and while there meets Lena, a
violinistina touring orchestra. Sensing her plightin such an existence,Heyst
convinces her to run away with him. Schomberg, who had designs upon Lena
himself, is angry. About this time, a Mr. Jones arrives with an assistant,
Martin Ricardo, and a servant, Pedro. Jones soon intimidates Schomberg
102 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
and sets up a gambling operation. Wishing to rid himself of the trio and get
back atHeyst at the same time, Schomberg tells Jones aboutHeyst and claims
that Heyst has a store of wealth on his island. Jones decides to travel to
Heyst’s island and arrives there with his men nearly dead from thirst. After
recovering, Ricardo tries to attack Lena, but she fights him oV. Seeing this
incident, Heyst’s servant Wang runs oV
in fear and takes Heyst’s only gun
with him. Heyst senses his danger and takes Lena to a mountain barrier that
had been erectedbythe Alfuro people tokeep civilization out and tries to get
Wang, who has fled there, to let Lena pass among them, but Wang refuses,
whereupon Heyst and Lena are forced to return to Heyst’s dwelling. Shortly
after returning, Ricardo informs Heyst that Mr. Jones wants to meet with
him.Meanwhile, Ricardo eats dinnerwith Lena,whois abletogethis dagger
awayfrom him.At that moment,Heyst andJonesreturn, and Jones, thinking
Ricardo has betrayed him, shoots at Ricardo. The bullet grazes Ricardo and
then hits Lenaby mistake, killing her.Davidson suddenly arrives, andWang,
who has also returned, shoots Pedro. Jones then succeeds in shooting
Ricardo, after whichJones, looking for their boat, whichWang had set adrift,
tumbles into the water and drowns. Davidson, who later recounts these final
events, is unsure whether Jones fell in accidentally or deliberately drowned
himself. Overcome with grief, Heyst sets fire to his dwelling, committing
suicide in the process.
Perhaps no other work of Conrad’s has engendered such diVering responses.
Many feel that the novel has the same limitations of Conrad’s other
late fiction; others, however, consider it to be among Conrad’s best works.
The truth probably lies somewhere between these two extremes. Conrad’s
characterizationofHeystis adept, and hisinvestigations into the necessity of
human relationships and connections harks back to some of Conrad’s best
work. At the same time, though, some of the diYculties Conrad had in
representing romantic relationships and some of the melodramatic elements
that appear in his less appreciated works also appear in Victory.
Despite possible flaws, though, some important issues for Conrad appear
in Victory with greater power and more sophisticated development than they
do anywhere else in Conrad’s works. The most important issue that arises has
todowithHeyst’srelationshipto the objects and individuals around him.He
takes a detached stance regarding the world and seeks only to observe and not
to participate. Heyst has been influenced by, or perhaps more accurately,
consumed by his father’s radically skeptical philosophy, which went so far as
to question the very existence of reality. The result of this philosophy is that
Heyst removes himself from the world, both physically and emotionally, and
comes to live a hermit-like existence. He is partly drawn out of this world
Conrad’s later period 103
when he helps to save his friend Morrison’s ship, and later comes out further
when he rescues Lena.Nevertheless,Heyst only partially integrates himself
back into the world. Only with Lena’s death does he fully recognize that
he has missed an opportunityto connect completely with another person and
thus despairs, lamenting to Davidson, ‘‘woe to the man whose heart has
not learned while young to hope, to love – and to put its trust in life!’’ (410).
By this point, it is too late, and he commits suicide. As happens so often
in Conrad’s works, Heyst had placed an idea (skepticism) above human
interaction and relationships, and the results are disastrous.
Related to this idea of the importance of human connection is the issue of
the construction of the self. In Victory, Conrad investigates how others
influence individual selves. Heyst is a clear example of this phenomenon in
that his self seems to be largely a product of his father’s ideas. Only as the
novelprogresses doesHeystbreakawayfrom his father’s philosophyand even
thenonlytoa degree.Aneven more striking exampleis Lena,who, whenshe
first appears, seems to be almost wholly devoid of self. Between the orchestra
leader, Schomberg, and others, Lena’s life has been so oppressed that she
exhibits little individual self, and even after she escapes with Heyst her self
seems molded only in the image of Heyst’s conception of her. For instance,
she asks Heyst to give her a new name, saying, ‘‘it seems to me, somehow,
thatifyou wereto stop thinkingof meI shouldn’tbein the worldat all! ...
I can only be what you think I am’’ (187). The result is a new self. Victory
warns of allowing the self to be subsumed as opposed to developing a fully
formedself.IfMarlowin ‘‘Heart ofDarkness’’iscorrectwhenhesaysthatthe
most one can hope for out of life is some knowledge of oneself (150), then
Victory demonstrates the grave consequences that occur when one fails to
gain that knowledge until it is too late.
In addition to the importance ofhuman connections and proper constructions
of the self, human interaction in Victory also concerns the ideas of
isolation and solidarity that appear in so many of Conrad’s works. Heyst’s
skepticism leads to his profound isolation from other human beings, not only
physically but also spiritually. His plight becomes a metaphor for humanity
in the modern world. For Conrad, with the disappearance of transcendental
truths, doubts concerning the existence ofGod, increased mechanization and
industrialization, and the transient nature ofthe lives of so manypeople, one
is utterly alone in the universe. Conrad suggests that only through solidarity
with other human beings can one escape this ultimate isolation. As was true
in Conrad’s other works, however, this communion with others is only
tentative and ephemeral. Lena’s entrance into Heyst’s life dramatically alters
his isolated existence, but the connection is too short and comes too late.
104 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Nevertheless, solidarity, thoughbrief and fragile, is the only means to survive
physically and psychologically and the only way to escape the alienation of
the modern world.
Within
the
Tides
Within the Tides is a collection of stories that most commentators have not
valued very highly. Written largely during the writing of Victory, and sometimes
bearing some similarities with that novel, these stories generally lack its
sophistication. The most interesting feature of this collection is that all of the
stories introduce some kind of narrative innovation.
The first story in this collection is ‘‘The Planter of Malata.’’ GeoVrey
Renouard, the planter of the title, has just come from his isolated silk
plantationonMalata,toa ‘‘greatcolonialcity’’(3), probablySydney,Australia,
where he meets Felicia Moorsam, who, in the company of relatives, has
come in search of her fiance´ Arthur, who has been disgraced in a financial
scandalinEngland.Inthefaceofthat scandal,Arthurfled,thoughprofessing
his innocence, and in the interim, his name has been cleared. As it turns out,
unbeknownst to Renouard, Arthur has been working as Renouard’s assistant
under the nameofWalter. Shortly beforeRenouard leftMalata,Arthur died,
but Renouard fails to mention that his assistant had died, and once it
becomes known that Walter is actually Arthur, Renouard decides to say
nothing because he has fallen in love with Felicia and can spend more time
with her if she remains looking for Arthur. Renouard convinces the Moorsams
to return to Malata with him to find Arthur, but lets on that Arthur is
away. Renouard finally confesses his deception as well as his love for Felicia,
who rejects him. Left alone on the island, he dismisses his workers, and
when Renouard’s friend the newspaper editor arrives a month later, he finds
onlyRenouard’s clothes on the beach, suggesting thatRenouard swam out to
sea, drowning himself.
What strengths the tale has lie largely in its having been written during the
writing of Victory, for the story’s greatest strength is in the characterization of
Renouard.Renouard, likeHeyst in Victory, has tried to remove himself from
the rest of humanity, working largely in isolation and divorced from close ties
with others. What he discovers, again like Heyst, is that such a life is bleak
andwithout meaning.Ironically,Renouard’sreintroductionintotheworldof
human ties proves to be his undoing. Renouard completely romanticizes
Felicia and is unable to see her for the shallow person she is. As a result, when
she rejects him,he despairs.Nevertheless, hisreturnfrom human isolationis
Conrad’s later period 105
somethingofavictory.His life has attaineda kindof meaning whereas before
it was devoid of any. In contrast to Renouard, throughout the story, Felicia
remains detached from human connections. Unlike Renouard who has been
isolated on his plantation,Felicia is constantly in social situations, but she has
no true connectionswith other people.Evenher searchforArthurhas lessto
do with the connection between them than with Felicia’s own conception of
herself as rescuing Arthur from his disgrace. Furthermore, she rejects both
Arthur and Renouard, first when she refuses to believe Arthur’s protests of
innocence during the scandal and second when she rejects Renouard’s declaration
of love. While Renouard has been rejected and is physically dead at
the end of the story, at least he had managed to bring himself back into the
world of human relations. Felicia, however, remains detached and thus
spiritually dead at the story’s conclusion.
The other point of interest regarding ‘‘The Planter of Malata’’ has to do
with the consistent juxtaposition of Realism and Romanticism in the story.
Both Renouard and Felicia represent the Romantic, each viewing the world
through such lenses, while the newspaper editor in particular and the rest of
the characters represent the Realistic world. This juxtaposition is most
apparent in the mundane activities in which the various characters engage
whileRenouard’s Romantic passions swirl in his mind. Similarly, the editor’s
steadfast inability toconceiveofRenouard’sRomantic suicide further solidifies
the contrast between these two seemingly mutually exclusive worlds.
Conrad, as he does so often, seems to be pointing out the limitations of both
ways of looking at the world.
‘‘ThePartner’’iscertainlyoneofthemost unusualand interestingworks
in the Conrad canon. The story has typically been dismissed as a potboiler
with little redeeming value, but such a view underestimates it. Without
doubt, the story’s plot has little to recommend it. Cloete is an American
confidence man,whotriestogethispartner,George Dunbar,toarrangethe
wreck of their ship in order to collect the insurance money so that they can
invest it in a lumbago pills business. Cloete hires StaVord to arrange
the wreck, but the plot goes awry when StaVord first tries to blackmail
Cloete for more money and then when he kills the ship’s captain, Harry
Dunbar, George’s brother, while trying to rob him. The result is that
everyone assumes that the captain committed suicide, which causes his
widow to go insane, and the insurance money that was to have gone to
Harrygoes tohis widowinstead andhenceis neverinvestedin thelumbago
pills business. The money that goes to George ends up insuYcient for the
investment, and Cloete, disappointed at his missed opportunity, returns to
America.
106 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
However, the narrative method has much to recommend it, unlike the
mundane plot. Certainly the most sophisticated and interesting of the narrative
methodologies employed in this collection, in manyways it harks back to
techniques Conrad had employed much earlier in his career. The information
in the story comes through a variety of sources and hence, like ‘‘Heart of
Darkness,’’ Lord Jim, and other works, the certainty of the information in
‘‘The Partner’’ comes into question, that is various diVering views of the
events arise, thereby calling into question any single, objective account.
Linked to the multiple views is the frame narrative that Conrad employs.
Unlike the Marlow narratives, for example, the frame in this story is highly
interactive. In other words, although the tale is told by the stevedore, the
unnamed writer character often interrupts, comments, and otherwise intrudes
upon the stevedore’s tale. The primary eVect of this interactive frame
narration is to contrast the stevedore’s view of the events with those of the
writer. Furthermore, the two characters serve to comment on the idea of
the writer and the writer’s public. Conrad satirizes the writer of popular
fiction, who appears in the character of the writer in the story. The writer is
unable to appreciate the significance ofwhat he hears, and the stevedore, who
seems to bear some striking similarities to Conrad himself, recognizes the
shallowness of the writer. In this way, Conrad is able to criticize both the
popular writer and the popular reading public, which, like the shallow writer
in ‘‘The Partner,’’ is unable to recognize significant moral and psychological
dramas – like those Conrad himself wrote.
Even more than the other stories in this volume, ‘‘The Inn of the Two
Witches’’ has been dismissed as having no literaryvalue. The plot is certainly
melodramatic and gothic, but there are interesting aspects of the story
nonetheless. Set in Spain, Edgar Byrne goes oV
in search of a fellow shipmate,
Tom Corbin, and comes upon an inn where Tom had stayed. The inn is
inhabitedbywhatByrne terms twowitches anda demon woman. After going
to his room, he believes he hears Tom’s voice warning him to be careful. He
finally gets up from bed and forces open a wardrobe, finding Tom’s dead
body inside.While mourning the loss of his friend and trying to discover how
he had died, Byrne moves the body to the bed. Unable to discover the cause
ofTom’s death and distraughtbygrief and fright,Byrne suddenly notices the
canopy of the bed dropping down, smotheringTom’s body.At that moment,
Byrne hears voices below and looks outside. Thinking a mob has come to kill
him, he rushes out at them and is knocked senseless. It turns out that the
mob was actually a group of men under the command of Gonzales, a man
friendly toward Byrne, who was impatient to learn the fate of Byrne and
Conrad’s later period 107
Corbin and had come in search of them. Byrne wakes up to learn that the
three women and an accomplice have been executed.
As is true of all of the stories in Within theTides, the narrative construction
of ‘‘The Innof theTwoWitches’’isof interest. The storyisa frame narrative
in the form of a ‘‘found’’ manuscript. An unnamed frame narrator purportedly
finds a manuscript that was written by Byrne some forty years after the
events occurred. Furthermore, Byrne obtains some of the information about
the events in the story from other individuals. As a result, the events and
views on those events are filtered through a variety of sources, each with
varying perspectives. The clearest distinctions occur in the diVering views of
the frame narrator and thatofByrne, but evenByrne himself, chronicling the
events so many years after the fact, betrays a diVerent perspective from that
whichhehadatthetimetheevents occurred.Allofthisbringsup,asitdidin
‘‘ThePartner,’’ therelativityand subjectivity oftheviews that are narrated.In
addition to the narrative technique, the story has further interest in the
emotions Byrne exhibits; the almost wholly paralyzing fear Byrne feels is well
drawn by Conrad, as is Byrne’s grief at his friend’s death. Although this
story’s literaryquality will neverbe confusedwith thatof ‘‘The Secret Sharer,’’
‘‘The Inn of the Two Witches’’ nevertheless warrants more than its usual
cursory dismissal.
‘‘Because of the Dollars’’ closes this collection and was originally envisioned
as part of Victory. Davidson runs into Laughing Anne, a former
prostitute he once knew. After a rash of men loving and leaving her, she
has taken up with Bamtz, a seedy character, who is supposed to have
reformed and become a small-time rattan trader in an isolated region of
the Malay Archipelago. Out of compassion for Anne and her son Tony,
Davidson includes Bamtz on his regular trading run. The government is
changing currency and requiring people to exchange all of their old currency.
Davidson is entrusted with collecting the money and makes the mistake of
mentioning it within earshot of three ruYans, who then go to Bamtz and lie
in wait for Davidson, intending to kill him and steal the money. One is a
Frenchman without hands, who has forced Anne to tie a weight to one of his
stumps. Anne warns Davidson, and when the men try to surprise him he is
ready for them. Realizing that they have been betrayed, the Frenchman
bludgeons Anne to death. Davidson succeeds in killing him, but the others
flee, including Bamtz, who has been a reluctant accomplice. Only the boy is
left, whom Davidson then takes home. When his wife learns of Anne’s past,
however, she believes Tony to be Davidson and Anne’s son and promptly
leaves Davidson.
108 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Like the other stories in Within the Tides, ‘‘Because of the Dollars’’ has
usually been considered of little literary merit. Also like the other stories, the
tale employs a narrative methodology that is not straightforward. The story
proceeds by way of a frame narrative, resulting in multiple perspectives –
although interestingly the unnamed narrator to whom Hollis relates his tale
appears to make no real judgments regarding what he hears. This is a
departure from Conrad’s usual practice of playing oV
the frame narrator’s
views against those of other characters and also against those of the reader.
Nevertheless,Hollis provides strong opinions about what he relates, opinions
that may often run counter to those of the reader. The most interesting aspect
of the story, though, may be the view of goodness that appears. Davidson is
presented as a ‘‘good’’ person, as is Anne. The disasters that occur in the
story, with the exception of Davidson’s conversation about the dollars being
overheard, result from Davidson’s goodness. The same is true of Anne’s fate;
her death results from her goodness in trying to save Davidson’s life.It seems
that Conrad may be suggesting rather pessimistically that being good is a
liabilityin the world. Both Anne’s and Davidson’s goodness certainly prove to
be liabilities, making the two vulnerable to the negative actions of others. On
the other hand, despite the tragedies that both endure, they are clearly the
most admirable characters in the story, certainly far more so than Davidson’s
wife, who despite her social respectability(in contrast to Anne’s)appears not
so very much better than Bamtz and the ruYans who plan to rob and kill
Davidson.Perhaps Conrad suggests that the goodness of Anne and Davidson
is worth the tragedies that befall them and that goodness may in fact be its
own reward.
The
Shadow-Line
The Shadow-Line is unusual among Conrad’s later works because whether
one sees a decline in these works or a change of creative direction, The
Shadow-Line is an anomaly. The novel has much more in common with
the works of Conrad’s middle period than it does with those of his later
period, and it is clearly the most powerful of Conrad’s later works.
The Shadow-Line is a story of initiation from apprenticeship to mastery of
command, much like ‘‘The Secret Sharer,’’ but it is also the story of crossing
that shadowy line from youth into manhood. A young captain receives his
first command, but his initial voyage as captain is beset with diYculties.
Almost all of the ship’s crew fall ill, and to make matters worse the captain
discovers that his predecessor had sold the ship’s stock of quinine and
Conrad’s later period 109
replaced it with a worthless powder. Under ordinary circumstances, this
development would not have been so dangerous, but in this case the ship is
caught in a dead calm and can make no progress. The narrator notes, ‘‘The
Island of Koh-ring . . . seemed to be the centre of the fatal circle. It seemed
impossible to get away from it. Dayafter day it remained in sight’’ (84). As a
result, their predicament becomes dire, and in the midst of this crisis the
young captain, again like the protagonist of ‘‘The Secret Sharer,’’ wonders
about his abilities to live up to the expectations of command: ‘‘I always
suspected that I might be no good’’ (107). In the end, however, he proves
to be up to the task, and with the help of his ailing crew and a much-needed
break in the weather is able to bring the ship safely into port without loss of
life or damage to the ship. To do so, though, the captain and the crew must
learn to cooperate and rely on one another. As happens in The Nigger of the
‘‘Narcissus’’ and ‘‘Typhoon,’’ cooperation among the men is crucial to their
continued survival, and lack of it threatens their veryexistence. Despite their
illness, the various crew members attend to their duties as soon as they can
get themselves out of their sick beds. They all work together in trying to
survive the voyage, and while their actions demonstrate the importance of
cooperation, the actions of the ship’s previous captain demonstrate the
danger of its lack. Mr. Burns, the ship’s Chief Mate, says of the previous
captain:
He never meant her [the ship] to see home again. He wouldn’t write
tohis owners,he neverwrotetohisoldwife either –he wasn’tgoingto.
He had made up his mind to cut adrift from everything. That’s what it
was. He didn’t care for business, or freights, or for making a passage –
or anything. He meant to have gone wandering about the world till he
lost her with all hands. (61–2)
The previous captain’s actions threaten the ship and its crew and represent a
breach in the social contract that exists between captain and crew. The young
captain comments that the previous captain’s actions were ‘‘a complete act of
treason, the betrayal of a tradition which seemed to [the young captain] as
imperative as any guide on earth could be’’ (62). The previous captain’s
actions, however, have even greater repercussions because they not only aVect
those who served under him but also those who serve under his successor,
because selling the ship’s quinine turns an uncomfortable situation into a
deadly one, and it is only through the eVorts of the crew and the luck of the
weather change that they survive their ordeal. In bringing about the ship’s
safety, Ransome, the ship’scook,is particularly important.He and the young
captain are the only crew members who do not fall ill. Ransome has a heart
110 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
condition, but despite the danger of his condition and despite the fact that
death constantly faces him, he puts all his eVort into saving the ship. His
actions starkly contrast with those of the ship’s previous captain. The result of
this voyage and of the young captain’s meeting his challenges is that he
crosses over that shadow line into maturity, both as a captain and as a human
being.
As he does in many of his other works, Conrad also considers the larger
issue of the nature of human existence in The Shadow-Line. On the open
ocean, the men are cut oV
from civilization and the safety of the shore. There
are no external restraints upon them, and each man aboard must find within
himself the strength and commitment to participate as a member of a
community and thus accept his responsibilities to the others. All that holds
their communitytogether is their obligation toward one another. During the
voyage, their lives are in danger, and their precarious hold on life is analogous
to that of human existence in general. Their lives are saved in part through
their cooperation and eVorts, but the larger part of their fate results from the
chance change of weather. Both the origin and disappearance of the dead
calm are mysteries.When the calm arises, the narrator comments, ‘‘There was
no sense in it. It fitted neither with the season of the year, nor with the secular
experience of seamen as recorded in books, nor with the aspect of the sky’’
(87). The calm disappears just as mysteriously. In these events, Conrad
emphasizes the tenuous nature of human existence and the powerful role
of fate in it.
The
Arrow
of
Gold
While in the case of Victory, no other book of Conrad’s has elicited such a
mixed reaction, in the case of The Arrow of Gold, no other book of Conrad’s
has evoked such strong dissatisfaction. Although the novel has its defenders,
even its defenders rarely attempt to make a case for it being worthyof most of
Conrad’s other works. In composing the novel, Conrad first began dictating a
majority of the material. The result was a much easier time composing than
was usual for Conrad, but at the same time perhaps a commensurate sacrifice
in the quality ofthe finalproduct followed.Most critics wouldprobably agree
that the painstaking, laborious method of compositionbyhand that Conrad
typically employed tended to result in better writing.
The novel begins with Monsieur George meeting Captain Blunt and
Mr. Mills, both Carlist supporters. They discuss a certain Don˜a Rita, another
Carlist supporter. Later, Mills brings George to meet Rita. George then
Conrad’s later period 111
becomes involved in gunrunning for the Carlists, engaging in several runs
during the course of the novel. Eventually, George falls in love with Rita and
learns that Blunt wishes to marry her. In the end, Rita refuses Blunt, and
shortly thereafter George declares his love for her but is left uncertain about
her feelings toward him. Later, after his nearly disastrous gunrunning expedition,
when George returns to Marseilles, he is instructed to meet a man
named Ortega. George soon discovers that Ortega is unstable and obsessed
with Rita. George takes him back to his lodgings, not knowing that Rita is
there.WhenOrtegarealizesthatRitais there,he triestobreakintoherroom.
Before he succeeds, he accidentally wounds himself and Rita and George
escape. The two spend an idyllic six months together, after which George
comes back to Marseilles for a short business trip and learns that Blunt has
been defaming him. Thisresultsina duelin which Georgeiswounded.When
he finally recovers, George finds that Rita has disappeared, presumably out of
concern that her relationship with George is dangerous to him.
Although the novel has been roundly criticized, there are nevertheless
some interesting aspects worth noting. The narrative methodology in some
ways harks back to Conrad’s earlier method of presenting material from
diVering perspectives. The Arrow of Gold employs multiple perspectives on
events and individuals, although in a less sophisticated manner than ‘‘Heart
of Darkness,’’ Lord Jim,or Chance, for example. There is a frame narrator of
sorts, who appears in the opening and concluding notes, and edits George’s
account of some of the events of his youth. Furthermore, several characters,
particularly during the early part of the novel, present diVering perspectives
on Rita; later in the novel, other characters, such as Ortega, Rita’s sister
Therese, and Blunt’s mother, present their views of Rita, and finally
Rita herself relates part of her history to George. The result is a variety of
perspectives on events and particularly on Rita. Unlike in some of Conrad’s
earlier works, however, the multiplicity of perspectives is not as sustained
nor as emphasized, although it does demonstrate how much subjectivity
influences how something appears. Furthermore, the three main views
represented in the novel, the editor’s view, George’s mature view, and
George’s youthful view, provide for interesting contrasts in perspective and
interpretation.
Amore important point of interest has to do with issues of gender politics.
In addition to the diVeringviewsof Ritapresentedbythe various characters,
the representation of Rita as an object of desire and as a fallen woman
presents interesting questionsregarding theroleof womeninWestern society
of the time. Although she is portrayed as a strong woman, Rita has clearly
been victimized at various times during her life. Even from her position of
112 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
power, wealth, and admiration, her actions and activities are circumscribed
within the boundaries of what society will allow her as a woman. In addition,
the danger she experiences results almost solely from the fact that she is
only an object of male desire. Despite her significant role in the Carlist cause,
the men consider her value almost exclusively to be that of a desirable
woman: they all desire her and objectify her within those terms. The
result is a psychologically damaged woman who can find no lasting peace
in her life. Nevertheless, she still exhibits strength in refusing to become the
object of male possession, as she alternately rejects the Carlist would-be king,
Blunt, Ortega, and even George, and although she is willing to live with
George for a time, she ultimately chooses to leave him and thereby remains in
full possession of her self.
The
Rover
The Rover was Conrad’s last completed novel. It begins with Jean Peyrol
returning toFrance after manyyearsaway asarover on the seas.Whileaway,
the French Revolution has occurred and is now on its wane. Peyrol wanders
oV
from Toulon to the place of his childhood and finds lodging at a
farmhouse on a peninsula. The farmhouse was formally owned by Royalists
who lost their lives in the revolution and is now inhabited by Arlette, their
daughter, her aunt Catherine, and Scevola Bron, a fervent Jacobite, who gave
full vent to his bloodthirsty ways during the revolution. Arlette has been
traumatizedby the deathsof her parents andbywitnessing so much carnage
during the revolution. Eight years pass, and Peyrol has become fully acclimated
to life on the farm.Meanwhile,Napoleon has cometopower, and the
French are at war with the British, who are trying to blockade the port of
Toulon. An English ship patrols the waters outside the port, and Lieutenant
Re´al is sent to the farmhouse to investigate the ship’s activities. He soon
becomes friendly with Peyrol and ultimately falls in love with Arlette. The
Frenchdevelopaplanto deceivetheEnglish:Re´alisto carryfalse documents
about the deployment of French forces and then allow himself to be caught
by theEnglish.Scevola,whorecognizesRe´alasa rivalfor Arlette, setsoutto
kill him with a pitchfork but is captured in the hold of Peyrol’s boat. Just
before Re´al is to set sail on his mission, Peyrol sends him back to the
farmhouse on a pretext and then sets oV
in his place. Cleverly leading the
English on, Peyrol eventually allows himself to be caught. Peyrol, Scevola,
and Michel,Peyrol’s friend and helper,are shot during their mock escape, but
Peyrol is successful in his mission, as the documents fall into the hands of the
Conrad’s later period 113
English. The novel ends some years afterPeyrol’s deathwith Arlette andRe´al
married and aVectionately discussing Peyrol.
In manyways, TheRover is a return for Conrad. For a number of years, he
had planned to write about the Napoleonic period of France, but until The
Rover he had written only two stories using that setting (‘‘The Duel’’ and
‘‘The Warrior’s Soul’’). The Rover and the unfinished Suspense were the
continuation of his interest in the period. In addition to the Napoleonic
setting, Conrad also returns to the sea and to a number of issues that
populated his earlier fiction. Peyrol embodies a number of the qualities that
Conrad infused into his most admirable characters from his sea fiction.
Peyrol is self-suYcient, eminently proficient in his profession, and a man
who can be relied upon to carry his weight in a crisis. He also embodies the
concept of solidarity in that despite having been away from France since he
wasaboy, whenhereturns, somethingof an outlaw and largely indiVerent to
politics, he nevertheless develops a connection with the land and with his
country, in the end sacrificing his life for the better good of France and for
the futureof Arlette andRe´al.
In addition to solidarity, Conrad also turns his attention once again to
revolutionary politics, as they are embodied in the character of Scevola as
well as in the French Revolution itself. As was true of Conrad’s previous
political writings that dealt with revolutionary politics, again in The Rover
Conrad exhibits his profound skepticism of both revolutionary and established
politics. Clearly,Scevola is presented as unsympathetically asNikita in
Under Western Eyes or the Professor in The Secret Agent. In fact, Scevola
seems to embody the worst of both in his bloodthirsty desires and precarious
grip on sanity. At the same time, though, Peyrol’s loyalty to France seems to
be more of a connection to the land and the general concept of the nation of
France than to the actual ruling government, toward which Peyrol exhibits
the same skepticism as he does toward Scevola’s political views.
There also appears to be a good deal of Conrad himself in the character of
Peyrol. Roughly the same age as Conrad when he was writing the novel,
Peyrol appears to exhibit some of the same attitudes as Conrad.Returning to
his homeland after manyyearsaway andremovedfrom the political upheavals
in the interim, Peyrol finds himself drawn back to France much the way
Conradwas laterinhislife,particularly afterhisvisittoPolandin 1914.Prior
to that time, Conrad took little public interest in the aVairs inPoland in fact
expressing a good deal of pessimism toward both the future prospects of
Poland and toward the political activism of Polish patriots, viewing such
actions as hopelessly doomed to failure. After Conrad’s visit, he took a much
more active role in the aVairsofPoland,writing tracts condemningEuropean
114 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
aggression toward Poland and supporting Polish independence, as well as
actively lobbying the British public and government on behalf of Poland. In
many ways, the careers of Peyrol and his author parallel one another.
Similarly,Peyrolmakesa choice lateinthenovelto sacrificehis life notjust
for his community and country but also for the rising generation. His
aVection for Arlette causes him to replaceRe´alwith himself on the suicide
missionto outwittheEnglish.In thisway,he passesontoRe´aland Arlette a
future together, as they build their lives and the life of France. With his final
action, Peyrol is passing the baton to the next generation, going out of this
life having lived a full life as a productive member of society at the very end.
Conrad’s letters, as well as his spotty work on Suspense, suggest that he felt
somewhat like Peyrol. He frequently expressed great fatigue and the feeling
that he was comingto the end of his life, the diVerence being perhaps that the
masterwork that Conrad envisioned for Suspense remained unfulfilled at the
time of his death.
The Rover has been much neglected, and this has been an oversight. If the
novel lacks the power and sophistication of some of Conrad’s other work, it
still has much that is of merit. The characterization of Peyrol as well as
Conrad’s revisiting some of his most powerful themes are a welcome return
in this the last of his completed fictional works.
Tales
of
Hearsay
This collection of stories was published posthumously and collected several
stories that had previously appearedonly in magazine form. The name of the
volume was apparently one that Conrad himself had considered for a collection
of stories, and the volume was introduced by Conrad’s long-time friend
R.B.Cunninghame Graham.Whether Conrad would have included all of the
stories is questionable. Jessie Conrad believed that Conrad would not have.
‘‘The Black Mate’’ is the slightest story in this collection and has engendered
far more discussion as a result of the debate over its origins than over
its literary merits. Conrad claimed to have begun the story in the 1880s in
order to submit it to a magazine competition. Jessie Conrad, however, said
that she gave Conrad the idea for the story, which would make its origins
much later.Ifthe storyhad been begun when Conrad claimed it to have been,
it, rather than Almayer’sFolly, would mark the beginning of Conrad’s literary
career.Asto the storyitself, the main character, Bunter, dyes hisprematurely
white hair in order to get a job as a mate. During the ensuing voyage,
though, his remaining dye is destroyed during a storm. The ship’s captain,
Conrad’s later period 115
a self-righteous man, looks down on Bunter. He also believes strongly in
spirits.Knowing that his white hair will soon begin to show through, Bunter
tricks the captainbyclaiminghe has seenaghost, which turns his hair white.
As to the story’s literarymerit, most commentators would not consider it to
be a particularly strong story, and it would be diYcult to dispute such an
evaluation. There are,however, a few points worthnoting. Although the issues
of isolation and honorable behavior remain largely uninvestigated in the story,
they do appear. Bunter’s need to struggle in isolation with the fear that his
deception will be uncovered evokes, on a much lesser scale, images of similar
psychological struggles in other Conrad characters. Finally,Conrad’ssuspicion
of religious sensibilityand scornofhypocrisy(in the formof Bunter’s captain)
run throughout the story and remind one of similar characters sprinkled
throughout so many of Conrad’s other works. Nevertheless, unlike Conrad’s
best works, such issues are not the story’s main focus but merely ancillary.
‘‘Prince Roman’’ is Conrad’s most unusual fictional work. Essentially
devoid of irony, it presents a revolutionary figure in a positive light, directly
engages a Polish topic, and sympathetically portrays a character in a happy
position at the story’s close. Recently happily married, Prince Roman is
devastated when his young wife suddenly dies. He gives up his position in
the Russian guards, assumes an alias, and joins the Polish insurgent forces.
He is later captured and brought to trial, where he is recognized.
A sympathetic judge, wanting to spare him, suggests that grief caused Prince
Roman to follow the path he did, but the Prince instead states that he acted
out of conviction and thus receives a twenty-five year sentence to Siberia.
After completing his sentence, he returns home and continues to act for the
benefit of his people.
Both laudatoryand patriotic, the storyunequivocally sympathizes with the
patriotic self-sacrificeofPrinceRoman, furtherpresenting himina favorable
light through his inexhaustible community service despite his physical limitations.
The story also appears to be based not only on the experience of an
actual historical figure but also on Conrad’s own experience as a young boy
when he is supposed to have met Prince Roman himself.Perhaps, though, the
most interesting aspect of the story from a literary perspective is the comment
that occurs toward the end of the story in which we learn that the
prince’s daughter and son-in-law fail to recognize the prince’s merits, which
Conrad clearly admires and seems to expect that the reader will also admire.
The daughter and son-in-law dismiss the prince, ascribing to him the fault of
being ‘‘guided too much by mere sentiment’’ (55). In this incident, Conrad
criticizes the couple, who directly reap the benefit of their wealth from Prince
Roman’s actions of sentiment but fail to appreciate those same actions.
116 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
‘‘The Warrior’s Soul’’ is one of Conrad’s better late stories. Another of
his works set in Napoleonic France, the story begins at the outbreak of
hostilities between France and Russia. De Castel, a French oYcer, warns his
friend Tomassov, a Russian oYcer living in France at the time, that war
has been declared, and thus Tomassov eludes capture. Later, during the
retreat from Napoleon’s disastrous Russian campaign, Tomassov’s regiment
captures some retreating French soldiers. Among them is de Castel, who has
lost all faith and courage and asks Tomassov to kill him and thus repay the
debtheowestode Castel.Tomassovunwillingly obliges him.Like TheRover,
‘‘The Warrior’s Soul’’ harks back to some of Conrad’s earliest works as it
investigates the moral and psychological conflict of Tomassov. Tomassov is
forced to choose between what he feels to be morally right and what he feels
to be honorably right. His choice is not enviable, and the tension between
Tomassov’s choice of moralities is what gives the story its power.
In addition to the story’s psychological power, the circumstances of its
writing are also of interest. Written during the First World War, the devastation
of war in the story is eerily similar to that in the trenches in Europe at
the time. Further emphasizing the senselessness of war is the contrast between
the two worlds in the story, that of French society before the war
begins and of Russian battlefields after. The same men who enjoyed one
another’s company before the war become adversaries once it begins, the
change in their relationship coming from their leaders not from the men. Left
to themselves, the men neverwould have initiated sucha conflict.As Conrad
suggests elsewhere, it is always the individuals who are caught between the
larger political forces.
‘‘TheTale’’isa storythatreturnsto someof Conrad’s earlierworksin that
it depicts the psychological struggles of a captain, who suspecting a ship of
traYckingwith the enemy duringWorldWarI, deliberatelygives the captain
of that ship incorrect directions, believing that those directions will be
ignored because the ship is aware of the region through its illegal actions.
The ship,however, follows the captain’s instructions exactly and sinks, killing
all aboard. The significance ofthis tale lies in several areas. First, the captain’s
inability to assess conclusively whether the other ship was traYcking with the
enemygives the storyits peculiar power. The captain does not know whether
he was right or wrong and hence feels guilty that he may have sent innocent
men to their deaths. What makes this situation particularly poignant is that
the captain can never know for sure and thus can never escape his feelings of
guilt. Linked to the captain’s guilt is Conrad’s implicit commentary on the
natureof war.In this story, Conrad showshow the exigenciesof war blur the
boundaries between right and wrong and cause all involved to act counter to
Conrad’s later period 117
moral behavior because even if the captain is correct about the activities of
the other ship the sentence he pronounces upon its men is not one a moral
person can easily accept. Finally, the narrative method of this story has
attracted much attention. Both the physical fog that appears in the story,
representing the moral fog that engulfs the captain’s actions, and the multiple
frame technique reveal Conrad’s last foray into formal experimentation and
narrative complexity. And as is so often true in Conrad’s works, the complexity
of the narrative mirrors the moral, psychological, and epistemological
complexities the story investigates.
Suspense
Suspense remained incomplete at the time of Conrad’s death and was published
posthumously in 1925. The novel is set primarily in Genoa in 1815,
duringthe suspense-filled timejust beforeNapoleonreturnedtoFrancefrom
his exile on Elba. It is the story of a young man, Cosmo Latham, who has
been traveling and come to Genoa to visit the Marquis d’Armand and his
daughterAde`le, the CountessdeMontevesso. TheMarquis and his family were
friends of Latham’s father, Sir Charles Latham, and lived at Latham Hall for
a time after escapingfrom France during theFrenchRevolution.Having fled
for their lives, the Marquis and his family had arrived in England impoverished.
In order to provide security for her family,Ade`le later married the
wealthybut uncultured Count deMontevesso, who is manyyears her senior.
Shortly after the novel opens, Latham goes for a walk to a local tower and
encounters and aids a man (Attilio), who is engaged in passing secret documents.
Latham then returns to his inn and the following day pays a visit to
Ade`le and her father, whom he has not seen for some tenyears. During the
course of his visit, Latham learns the sad story ofAde`le’s history with her
husband, who has subjected her to his fits of jealousy, calumny, and suspicion.
Lathamis clearly attractedtoAde`le,and afterhereturnstohisinnthere
is some suggestion that Ade`le’s husband may be seeking to assassinate
Latham out of jealousy. The next day, after spending the entire day writing
a letter to his sister, Latham suddenly rushes out of the inn to go for a walk
downbythe port.While there, Latham again encountersAttilio, who is being
sought by the authorities. Attilio hides some documents in Latham’s hat and
runs oV
just before the authorities arrive and arrest Latham. Latham discovers
the documents only when he puts his hat on. Shortly afterwards,
Latham is to be transported across the harbor and incarcerated. On the
way, Attilio ambushes the transport boat, subduing the guards and rescuing
118 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Latham. Attilio and Latham then elude the authorities in the immediate
vicinity, and the book concludes with Latham and Attilio rowing away from
Genoa to escape further pursuit.
It is diYcult to know what the novel might have become had Conrad lived
tocompleteit.Hehad conceivedofthenovelperhapsasearlyas1902butput
oV
itswriting for manyyears. Conrad hadhigh hopes for Suspense, envisioning
it as a masterwork. What he left behind, however, falls far short of that
goal. Most commentators have generally dismissed the novel as of no real
consequence, and there is much justification for such opinions. At the same
time, though, there is some promise in this unfinished novel. Conrad does an
excellent job of evoking the atmosphere of fear, intrigue, suspicion, and of
course suspense that filled the air at that time. The theme of youth moving
into adulthood also appears to have been one of the ideas that Conrad had
planned to pursue. In addition, there is the hint of an incest theme in the
novel with the suggestion that Latham’s father also may have fatheredAde`le.
Perhaps the most promising idea evoked in Suspense, however, is that representedbyAde`
le’s situation.Her poignant story of self-sacrifice for her family
and the persecution she endures at the hands of her husband might have
been,if expanded upon,apowerful statement regarding the plightof women
in the world and the all-too-common need for women to sacrifice happiness
for security, as well as their powerless position in abusive relationships, a
plight that was as true in the time the novel was written as it was in the time it
was set.
Conrad’s only other fictional work was the novel fragment The Sisters –a
mere thirty-nine pages in manuscript. Conrad began this work in 1895 and
abandoned it shortly thereafter. Unlike so many of the other works he set
aside, Conrad never returned to The Sisters and he appears to have never
intended to finish it. The posthumous publication of The Sisters in 1928
ends the literary career of one of the most important and unique authors of
the twentieth century. Consistently in the forefront of literary ideas and
innovation, Conrad would become one of the most influential authors of
his time.
Chapter
6
Conrad
criticism
In this chapter,I will discussthe critical receptionof Conrad’sworks bothat
the time he was writing and afterwards. My goal is to present a history of
the criticism and in the process discuss important studies of Conrad’s works
and identify crucial debates surrounding them.Iwill lookat someof the early
commentaries on Conrad’s works, as well as Conrad’s movement from
canonical status to a state of disfavor to his reinstatement as a canonical
writer. I will then follow his critical reception until the present.
During Conrad’s lifetime, the reviews of his fiction were generally quite
favorable. In fact, for some of his works the critical reception was even more
favorable then than it is now. Given the number of commentaries on Conrad’swork,
itwouldbe impossibleto address them all.Eventhe book-length
studiesaretoo numerousto considerallofthem,andsoIhavebeenforcedto
leave out many good commentaries. In outlining the history of Conrad
criticism, I will consider those studies with which any student of Conrad’s
works should be familiar, along with those that have been important to the
development of Conrad criticism, because of the work’s highquality, because
it marked an important moment in Conrad criticism, or because it initiated
or continued a significant branch of Conrad criticism. In the process of this
survey, I will focus largely on book-length studies since they have usually
been the most important to the development of Conrad criticism. At the
same time, though, I have also included those essays and book chapters that
have made particularly significant contributions to Conrad criticism.
Several book-length studies of Conrad’s life and works were written during
his lifetime. Of those, only RichardCurle’s JosephConrad:AStudy(1914) and
WilsonFollett’s JosephConrad:A Short Study (1915) made significant contributions
to Conrad studies. Curle’s Joseph Conrad: A Study, being the first
book-length study of Conrad’s work, takes up a number of the issues upon
which later commentators would expand.Curle classifies Conrad asaRealistic
Romanticist, and his book is important for the scholarly interest it
generatedin Conrad’sworks, forCurle’srecognitionof Conrad’s useof irony
and fixed ideas, for his recognition of the quality of Conrad’s works, and for
120 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
some good readings of individual works. Nevertheless, the value of Curle’s
book is primarily as a catalyst for later more extensive and significant
discussions of many of the issues that Curle considers. In contrast, Follett’s
JosephConrad:A Short Study is the first truly sophisticated study of Conrad’s
works, particularly useful is his commentary on the issues of an indiVerent
universe and the need for solidarity. Follett’s is certainly the best of the early
books on Conrad and has been unnecessarily neglected. Although the language
is somewhat overblown, Follett clearly identifies the irrational and
indiVerent universe in which Conrad’s characters exist. He also shows a
continuityamong Conrad’s works and consistently identifies crucial passages
and issues arising in these works.
Among the shorter commentaries that appeared during this time, several
are worth mentioning because they all anticipate important debates in
Conrad studies. Grace Isabel Colbron, in ‘‘Joseph Conrad’s Women,’’ which
appeared in the January 1914 issue of The Bookman, recognizes many of the
limitations of the female characters in Conrad’s works and begins the important
discussionofwomenin Conrad’sworkslong beforeit wouldbecome
a prominent area of Conrad criticism. Henry James, in his essay ‘‘The
Younger Generation: Part II,’’ which appeared in the Times Literary Supplement
on April 2, 1914, addresses the issue of the quality of Conrad’s later
works. James’s was one of the few voices to express reservations about
Conrad’s Chance when he suggested that the book privileges form over
content, an opinion that would later be echoed by many others. Similarly,
in ‘‘Mr. Conrad:AConversation,’’ which appeared in Nation&Athenæumon
September 1, 1923 and in a review published in the Times Literary Supplement
on July 1, 1920, Virginia Woolf questions the quality of The Arrow of
Gold and The Rescue; like James, Woolf would be one of the few dissenting
voices in the general atmosphere of praise surrounding Conrad’s later works,
as she anticipated subsequent criticism of these novels. Finally, on a broader
level, in a review of Conrad’s essay collection, Notes on Life and Letters that
appeared in Nation & Athenæum on March 19, 1921, E. M. Forster took the
opportunity to remark on Conrad’s works as a whole, famously commenting
that Conrad ‘‘is misty in the middle as well as at the edges, that the secret
casket of his genius contains a vapour rather than a jewel.’’ This evaluation
has served as the starting point for much commentary since.
Immediately following Conrad’s death,avarietyofcommentaries appeared,
several of which are worth noting. Ford Madox Ford’s Joseph Conrad:
A Personal Remembrance (1924) at times provides useful commentary on
Conrad’sworks, methodof composition, and theoryofliterature.Ford’s book,
however, is most useful when corroborated by other documentation. One
Conrad criticism 121
must always be skeptical in accepting Ford’s assertions because the book has
been roundly criticized for historical and biographical inaccuracies. Similarly,
Jessie Conrad’sJosephConrad asIKnew Him(1926) provides some useful and
interesting biographical information, but the fact that some of her information
runs counter to established facts suggests that this book, too, must be
studied with some skepticism. The last important biographical work to appear
during this time was G.Jean-Aubry’s JosephConrad: Life and Letters(1927), a
biography and collection of letters integrated into the biographical material.
Long a definitive source for Conrad’s biography and correspondence, it has
now been largely superseded.
Not long after Conrad’s death, opinions about his works began to shift
dramatically. By 1930, both Richard Curle and Granville Hicks noted a
decline in Conrad’s reputation. In his essay ‘‘Conrad and the Younger
Generation,’’ which appeared in the January 1930 issue of Nineteenth Century,
Curle remarked that the younger generation regarded Conrad ‘‘as an
exotic ‘spirit,’ rather than asa serious novelist.’’ Similarly,Hicks,in his article,
‘‘Conrad after FiveYears,’’ published in the New Republic on January8, 1930,
suggested that Conrad’s reputation was shrinking because he was not a
sociological novelist and was perceived to be a writer of Romance and
adventure rather than the philosophical novelist that he was. Nevertheless,
several worthwhile books appeared during the 1930s. In The Twentieth
Century Novel: Studies in Technique (1931), Joseph Warren Beach includes a
chapter on Conrad’s literary technique, presenting the first extended and
intelligent discussion of Conrad’s Impressionism. In the area of biography,
Gustav Morf ’s The Polish Heritage of Joseph Conrad (1930) deals with biographical
issues, particularly Conrad’s Polish heritage, and it was the first
early study of Conrad with staying power. Good as Follett’s book is, it has
fallen intorelative obscurity.In contrast,Morf’s bookis still useful, although
it has been overshadowed by more recent work, particularly that of Zdzislaw
Najder. Morf ’s was the first detailed account of Conrad’s Polish background
and the first clear demonstration of the importance of that background on
the formation of his fiction. Other commentators, such as Hugh Walpole in
Joseph Conrad (1916) and Ernst Bendz in Joseph Conrad: An Appreciation
(1923), had used biographical information to try to understand Conrad’s
works, but Morf ’s access to Polish materials was a significant addition to
biographical criticism of Conrad’s works. His readings of such writings as
Lord Jim, Nostromo, and ‘‘AmyFoster’’ focus on Conrad’sPolish background
to interpret them. Furthermore, regardless of whether one agrees with
Morf ’s readings, they are often well argued and have formed the basis for
much later debate. Another biographical study is Jessie Conrad’s Joseph
122 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Conrad and His Circle (1935). A companion to her Joseph Conrad as I Knew
Him, this book possesses the same strengths and weaknesses of her earlier
book. Rather than biography, William Wallace Bancroft’s Joseph Conrad: His
Philosophy of Life (1931) is the first extended discussion of Conrad’s philosophy
as it appears in his works. In many ways, this book has been superseded
by later discussions, but it is nevertheless worth consulting. Bancroft considers
Conrad’s emphasis on the moral law and particularly on the importance
of human solidarity. Furthermore, his thoughtful discussion of some of
Conrad’s more neglected works such as ‘‘The Return’’ and ‘‘The Idiots’’
invites their further consideration. Another kind of inquiry into Conrad’s
thinking appears in R. L.Me´groz’s JosephConrad’sMind andMethod (1931).
While perpetuating some of the faults of other studies of the time (too much
praise and too little analysis), this book also contains some useful commentary.
For instance,Me´groz is the first commentator to argue that women play
a much larger role in Conrad’s works than is typically perceived, a view that
was almost universally overlooked until relatively recently. Similarly, Me´ groz
does a good job of identifying some of the plotting and narrative techniques
that Conrad employs to obtain the eVect he does and to represent setting and
action realistically. Like several other commentaries of this time, Edward
Crankshaw’s Joseph Conrad: Some Aspects of the Art of the Novel (1936) has
some interesting insights into Conrad’s works, such as the contrapuntal
structure in Chance and the idea that Conrad’s works are artistic unities. In
addition, Crankshaw includes extended discussions of some of Conrad’s less-
studied works. Crankshaw’s main intent is to rescue Conrad’s reputation, but
he avoids the pitfall of praise without analysis that plagues so many other
early commentaries.Aparticularlyimportantbookpublishedaroundthistime
was John Dozier Gordon’s Joseph Conrad: The Making of a Novelist (1940).
AlongwithusefulcommentaryonConrad’sworks,Gordon’sbookisthefirstindepthanalysisofthehistory
and compositionprocessofConrad’s writings and
henceisparticularly usefulfortextual criticismofConrad’sworks.Thisbook
really marksthebeginning of moderncriticismonConrad.
By the late 1930s, there had been rumblings about the need to recover
Conrad’s reputation. M. C. Bradbrook’s Joseph Conrad, Jo´zef Teodor Konrad
Nale.cz Korzeniowski: Poland’s English Genius (1941) furthers the work begun
by Crankshaw and others to re-establish Conrad as a major figure in British
literature. Bradbrook divides Conrad’s works into early(Almayer’s Folly to
‘‘Typhoon’’), mature(Nostromo to Victory), and declining(The Shadow-Line
to Suspense)periods. She emphasizes the moral aspects of Conrad’s writings
and presents some important insights into his work. This book also serves as
an important stepping stone for much criticism that would follow, in part
Conrad criticism 123
because she anticipates the theory that Conrad’s later works represent a
decline in quality. Perhaps the most important figure in the recovery of
Conrad’s reputation, though, was Morton Dauwen Zabel, who, as early as
his December 1940 article in the New Republic entitled ‘‘Conrad: Nel Mezzo
de Cammin,’’ argued that Conrad’s reputation needed to be established once
more on a firm foundation. Zabel then expanded upon these ideas in his
well-known introduction to ThePortableConrad (1947). In this lengthy essay,
he argued that Conrad was a novelist of moral insight, who imposed moral
experience on the structure of his plots; Zabel also dealt with the psychological
aspect of Conrad’s writing as well as the inextricable nature of form
and content in his works. The publication of Zabel’s introduction to The
PortableConradmarked the permanent recovery of Conrad’s reputation. The
other crucial work to appear during this time was Albert J. Guerard’s short
book Joseph Conrad (1947). A precursor to his later work, Joseph Conrad
focuses on issues that would occupy much of Conrad criticism for decades:
Conrad’s skepticism, his psychological investigations, and what many came
to see as a strong decline in the quality of Conrad’s later works. To be sure,
Guerard was influenced by Morf, Zabel, Bradbrook, Crankshaw, and others,
but his short book and Zabel’s introduction were the strongest contribution
to Conrad scholarship to date and helped to fix Conrad’s reputation as one
of the finest British novelists of the twentieth century. The following year
F. R. Leavis, in The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad
(1948), places Conrad among the great writers of British literature because of
his moral realism and together with Zabel and Guerard eVectively ends the
debate concerning Conrad’s place in British letters. Leavis’s extended discussions
of Conrad’s most well-known works would influence most critics who
followed him, and he continued the work of Guerard and Bradbrook in
delineating canonical and non-canonical works in the Conrad opus, a trend
that would continue for decades in which most critics valued most highly the
works of Conrad’s middle period and generally dismissed the later works and
to a lesser extent the early works as well.
The 1950s was the period of Conrad’s great revival. The decade began
with Guerard’s insightful introduction to the Signet edition of ‘‘Heart of
Darkness’’ & ‘‘The Secret Sharer,’’ in which he outlines many of the standard
views of these works such as the doubling in ‘‘The Secret Sharer’’ and the
journey within in ‘‘Heart of Darkness.’’ Also that year, Robert Penn Warren
published his famous lengthy introduction to the Modern Libraryedition of
Nostromo and discussed a number of Conrad’s works alongside Nostromo,
arguing that Conrad is a philosophical novelist in his depiction of ‘‘the black
inward abyss of himself and the black outward abyss of nature.’’ Douglas
124 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Hewitt’s book Conrad: A Reassessment (1952) was yet another important
work that further helped to solidify Conrad’s re-emergence as one of the
century’s most important British novelists by showing how the settings and
structure ofConrad’s novels helped, among other things, to present powerful
representations of his central characters’ inner struggles, as these struggles are
considered in light of ideas of fidelity, courage, and codes of conduct and
often result in a ‘‘choice of nightmares.’’ As had Bradbrook and Guerard,
Hewitt also questions the quality of Conrad’s work after Under Western Eyes.
In contrast to Hewitt, Guerard, and Bradbrook,Paul L.Wiley,in his Conrad’s
Measure of Man (1954), argues that Conrad’s works fall into distinct periods
that deal with diVerent aspects of the human experience in the modern
world – the early works being characterized by ‘‘hermits’’ or individuals
isolated from society, the middle works by ‘‘incendiaries’’ or individuals in
struggle with society, and the later works by ‘‘knights’’ or individuals attempting
(though typically tragically) to act as rescuers. Wiley’s arguments
and analysis are eVective, and the book remains useful, particularly as the
first work to reject the idea of Conrad’s declining abilities in his later works.
In the area of biography, Jocelyn Baines’s JosephConrad:ACritical Biography
(1959) is the first good biography of Conrad and is a work that has remained
useful, despite the publication of other biographies that have superseded it.
Baines’s is a literarybiographyand reads Conrad’s life through his works and
his works through his life, and as such set the standard for such studies.
The latter part of the decade marked the publication of three of the most
important contributions in Conrad criticism to that time: Irving Howe’s
lengthy chapter on Conrad’s politics in his Politics and the Novel (1957),
Thomas C. Moser’s Joseph Conrad: Achievement and Decline (1957), and
Guerard’s Conrad the Novelist (1958). Howe delineates Conrad’s distaste for
politics and particularly for revolutionary politics. He reads Conrad as a
political conservative emphasizing his desire for order and social stability.
Howe’s was the first extended look at Conrad’s politics.Moser’s chief contribution
is his theory of achievement and decline. He argues that Conrad’s
creative abilities declined after 1912 and that this decline resulted from his
increased focus on issues of romantic love, further arguing that many of the
flaws of Conrad’s earlier works also involve Conrad’s depiction of romance.
In particular, Moser identifies issues of fidelity and betrayal as central to
Conrad’s best works. Similarly,he sees moral interests as informing Conrad’s
best works, rather than the idea of chance that appears in most of Conrad’s
later works. Finally, Moser’s readings of Conrad’s individual works are
usually insightful and have been enormously influential. Even today, many
Conrad scholarstendtoagreewithMoser’sviewof achievementand decline.
Conrad criticism 125
Guerard, by contrast, does not oVer such an overarching theory regarding
Conrad’s works. He does work from a psychological perspective, both Jungian
and Freudian, but his reading of Conrad is not reductive. In particular,
Guerard emphasizes the moral challenges of Conrad’s characters and their
attempts at self-knowledge, highlighting their struggles to come to terms with
the enigma of human existence. As he did in Joseph Conrad, Guerard argues
for a decline in Conrad’s creative powers after UnderWestern Eyes, excepting
only The Shadow-Line. Conrad theNovelist’s great strength is in its readings of
individual works. Many of the standard views concerning ‘‘Heart of Darkness,’’
LordJim, and TheNigger of the ‘‘Narcissus,’’ for instance, first appear in
Guerard’s book, and manylater critical works merelyexpand upon issues that
Guerard raises. Nearly fifty years after their publication, Moser’s and Guerard’s
books remain standard works of Conrad criticism, and, whether one
agrees or disagrees with their conclusions, one must nevertheless take them
into account when studying Conrad’s works.
The 1960sbrought several important studiesof Conrad’sworks, particularly
regarding the politics of his novels. In 1963, EloiseKnappHaypublished The
Political Novels of Joseph Conrad and in 1967 Avrom Fleishman published
Conrad’s Politics: Community and Anarchy in the Fiction of Joseph Conrad.
Theseworks,togetherwithHowe’s earliertreatmentofthetopic, shiftedfocus
away from primarily apolitical issues, and for decades it seemed that the
political world of Conrad’s fiction was divided between Hay and Fleishman.
Hay certainly focuses on Conrad’s overtly political fiction, but she also sees
Conrad’s political ideas informing all of his fiction in one way or another. She
argues that because of Conrad’s background, politics infused all of his thinking,
and thus his political ideas are a part of the very essence of Conrad’s
philosophy of life. As to Conrad’s politics specifically, like Howe, she takes
perhaps the more commonly accepted view of the time: that Conrad was fairly
conservative in his politics, rejecting revolutionary activities and siding with
the political establishment. On the other hand, Fleishman’s important book
argues that such a view oversimplifies the intellectual context and tradition in
which Conrad wrote, and he sees Conrad as far less conservative than had
usually been thought. Along with clearly placing Conrad within the context
of both his Polish political heritage and his English and European historical
and political context, Fleishman achieves a generally convincing argument
regarding Conrad’s political views. In addition, he provides strong readings of
Conrad’s works, especially regarding the need for establishing communityand
eschewing anarchy.
Two important biographical works also appeared during the 1960s.
Norman Sherry published the first of his biographical/historical studies,
126 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Conrad’s Eastern World (1966), in which he traces the various biographical
and historical sources and materials relevant to Conrad’s works. Jerry Allen’s
biography, The Sea Years of Joseph Conrad (1965), had also provided some
useful evidence for sources for some of Conrad’s works and in this way
anticipated Sherry’s work, but Sherry’s work overshadows Allen’s. Although
not infallible, Conrad’s Eastern World remains mandatory for biographical/
historical criticism of Conrad’s works. Another important biographical contribution
was Bernard C. Meyer’s Joseph Conrad: A Psychoanalytic Biography
(1967). Although somewhat dated and heavily influenced by Freud, Meyer’s
biographyis nevertheless an important addition to Conrad studies in that he
links Conrad’s life and personal psychology to an interpretation of his works
and, if approached with some skepticism, it can still be a useful book.
A particularly important shorter work also appeared about this time.
J. Hillis Miller, in a chapter on Conrad in his Poets of Reality: Six Twentieth-
Century Writers (1965), argues for a pessimistic world view in Conrad’s
works that almost reaches the point of nihilism, suggesting that Conrad
periodically reveals briefglimpses of the bleak truth of an irrational universe
that is typically hidden from most individuals. Miller is particularly good in
his discussion of The Secret Agent, and his views would engender an entire
school of thought that saw Conrad approaching nihilism.
Another important development during this period was an increased
attention to Conrad’s shorter fiction. Edward W. Said published his first
extended commentary on Conrad in Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography
(1966). It was also the first extended commentary on Conrad’s
short fiction. Said argues that a key to understanding Conrad’s fiction comes
through understanding his autobiographical writings, particularly his letters.
In eVect, Conrad rewrote his life in his fictional works, particularly his short
fiction. In the process of his argument, Said singles out such stories as ‘‘The
Secret Sharer,’’ ‘‘The Planter of Malata,’’ and especially The Shadow-Line as
representing Conrad’s life. Said’s book concludes with The Shadow-Line,
suggesting that it is the culmination of all Conrad’s previous attempts to
write his life into his fiction and represents a kind of coming to terms with
himself. In the process of arguing these points, Said’s argument runs counter
to the achievement and decline school of thought. Following Said’s lead,
Lawrence Graver’s Conrad’s Short Fiction (1969) also focuses on Conrad’s
stories and like Said emphasizes the quality of the short fiction over the long
fiction. Unlike Said, however, Graver sees a clear decline in the quality of
Conrad’s works. In fact, he sees a decline beginning as early as 1903.
Rounding out the decade, John A. Palmer published Joseph Conrad’s
Fiction: A Study in Literary Growth (1968), which seeks to shift the focus in
Conrad criticism 127
Conrad criticism away from psychological and philosophical issues and onto
moral issues. Palmer also argues against a decline in Conrad’s later works,
suggesting instead three distinct periods in Conrad’s development, each with
a time of apprenticeship moving to full realization, the last period culminating
in Victory. Of Conrad’s last works, Palmer argues that rather than suVering
from fatigue or a decline in his artistic abilities, these works instead
suVer from the negative eVects of nostalgia (The Rover and The Arrow of
Gold), complicated composition(The Rescue), or incompleteness(Suspense).
After Wiley’s Conrad’s Measure of Man, Palmer’s is the first direct and
extended response to the achievement and decline theory.
Like the 1960s, the 1970s were a particularly important time in Conrad
criticism in that they introduced many of the most important debates that
continue to have currency today. One of the most important of these was the
debate over colonialism in Conrad. This issue came to the forefront of
Conrad criticism with the publication of Chinua Achebe’s ‘‘An Image of
Africa’’ in The Massachusetts Review in 1977, in which he argued that Conrad’s
portrayal of Africans in ‘‘Heart ofDarkness’’ was racist and that because
he represents Africans as less than human the storyshould not be considered
a great work of literature. There has probably been no more influential essay
written in Conrad criticism in that this short essay has engendered countless
responses. Robert F. Lee had introduced the issue of colonialism in his
Conrad’s Colonialism (1969), but he did not criticize colonial practice, nor
did he consider the issue from the point of the colonized. In contrast,Achebe
forever forced Conrad scholars to consider Conrad’s stance on issues of race
and imperialism. From the very beginning, critics have argued both for and
againstAchebe.Two importantresponsesof the time wereFrancisB. Singh’s
‘‘The Colonialist Bias in Heart of Darkness,’’ which appeared in Conradianain
1978, and Hunt Hawkins’s ‘‘Conrad’s Critique of Imperialism in Heart of
Darkness,’’ which appeared in PMLA in 1979. Although not entirely agreeing
with Achebe, Singh does agree that African culture is represented as inferior
in Conrad’s story. In contrast, Hawkins argues that rather than being a racist
who accepted colonialism, Conrad actually argues against racism and colonialism.
As yet, no one seems to feel that the debate has been settled, since
commentaries on the subject continue to appear with regularity.
Two important biographical works also appeared in the 1970s. First,
Norman Sherry published Conrad’s Western World (1971), a companion to
his earlier Conrad’s Eastern World and a similarly mandatory book. Later,
Frederick R.Karl published his lengthy and important biography of Conrad,
Joseph Conrad: The Three Lives (1979). Karl does not so much reinterpret
Conrad’s life asprovidea great dealof documentation.He worksfrom much
128 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
new material in considering both Conrad’s life and his works, and for a time
this book took a place next to Baines’s book as one of the most important
biographies of Conrad.
The 1970s also saw a number of other important Conrad studies appear.
The first was Bruce Johnson’s Conrad’s Models of Mind (1971), which deals
with Conrad’s struggle to find identity in a meaningless world. Johnson
argues that Conrad approaches his fiction with certain psychological and
philosophical models in mind that change over time. In particular, he sees
Conrad moving from a will–passion model in his earliest writings to an ego–
sympathy model. He also sees Conrad as a proto-Existentialist. Johnson’s
book is strongest in his discussion of Conrad’s early works, and his is the first
extended philosophical approach to Conrad’s works since Bancroft’s Joseph
Conrad: His Philosophy of Life and as such initiated the steady stream of
philosophical approaches that have appeared since. That same year, Royal
Roussel published The Metaphysics of Darkness: A Study in the Unity and
Development ofConrad’s Fiction. Influenced by the ideas of J. Hillis Miller,
Roussel argues that Conrad’s fiction confronts what Roussel calls ‘‘the darkness,’’
theforceatthe heart of Conrad’s universe. He discusses three stagesin
Conrad’s works: the first shows writing as a possible way to place oneself
in the material world; the second reveals Conrad believing less and less in
the visible world; and the third sees him trying to find identity through
commitment to the world. Unlike the philosophical studies of Johnson
and Roussel, David Thorburn, in Conrad’s Romanticism (1974), revisits
the issue of Romanticism in Conrad’s works. Walter F. Wright, in Romance
and Tragedy in Joseph Conrad (1949), Ruth M. StauVer, in Joseph Conrad:
His Romantic-Realism (1922), and Walpole, in Joseph Conrad, had addressed
the idea of Romanticism in Conrad’s works, but unlike them Thorburn
argues that Conrad was really more of a nineteenth-century author than a
twentieth-century author, suggesting that he had much in common with
writers such as Rudyard Kipling and Robert Louis Stevenson. Thorburn
further argues that many of the elements in Conrad’s fiction result from
Romantic ideas, and he even proposes the influence of English Romantic
lyric poetry on Conrad. Thorburn presents a corrective to those who would
see Conrad only in terms ofModernism. In contrast, C. B. Cox, in his Joseph
Conrad: TheModern Imagination(1974), argues that Conrad is solely a writer
of the twentieth century, suggesting that Conrad engages nihilism and is a
proto-Existentialist. Cox sees Conrad bringing together alienation and
commitment in his works, which results in indeterminacy. H. M. Daleski
takes up a diVerent issue in his Joseph Conrad: The Way of Dispossession
(1977), which, as the title suggests, sees the dispossession of the self as a
Conrad criticism 129
central issue in Conrad’s works. Daleski argues that one must be in possession
of the self in order to demonstrate virtues such as fidelity, and when one loses
possession of the self, one is destroyed, either physically or spiritually. Daleski
also argues, though, that ultimately self-possession often can result only from
consciously letting go of one’s self and thus coming to a greater awareness of
self. Anotherworkin somewaysconcernedwiththeselfisJeremyHawthorn’s
Joseph Conrad: Language and Fictional Self-Consciousness (1979), which
argues that Conrad’s works are always self-referential. Hawthorn focuses
particularly on language, and, influenced by linguistic and Marxist theory,
he argues for a relationship between the subjective and objective through
language, suggesting that language is the means by which subjective experience
can be translated into objective experience. Ian Watt concludes the
1970s, and fittingly so; his Conrad in the Nineteenth Century (1979) has
taken a place next to Moser’s and Guerard’s books as a standard work of
Conrad criticism. Part formalist, part biographical/historicist, part intellectual
historicist, Watt’s unique blend of approaches provides for an intelligent
reading of Conrad. His extended discussions of Conrad’s technique of
delayed decoding and his views on Conrad’s relationship to Impressionism
and Symbolism have become standard views in Conrad scholarship. Furthermore,
Watt’s clear and reasoned readings have influenced many who
followed him.
The 1980s continued many of the debates that arose in previous decades,
expanding and augmenting them. In addition, a number of studies informed
by poststructural literary theory also appeared during this time. The first of
these is William W. Bonney’s Thorns & Arabesques: Contexts for Conrad’s
Fiction (1980), which follows in the tradition of Miller and Roussel and
argues for a kind of nihilism in Conrad’s works. Informed by contemporary
literary theory, Bonney argues that a tension exists in Conrad’s works that
results in both construction and de-construction of certain ideas. Bonney
suggests that Conrad aYrms discontinuity, deconstructs the Romance, and
engages in various forms of linguistic discontinuity. Fredric Jameson’s chapter
on Conrad in his The Political Unconscious (1981) is also influenced by
poststructural thought, as well as by Marxist thought. In this influential
commentary, Jameson looks at the ideas of Romance and reification in
Conrad’s writings, particularly in Lord Jim and Nostromo, arguing that Conrad’s
works represent a fault line in modern literature in which the literary
and cultural structures become visible in a way they were not previously.
Aaron Fogel’s important Coercion to Speak: Conrad’s Poetics of Dialogue
(1985) moves in a somewhat diVerent direction and approaches Conrad’s
works in light of Mikhail Bakhtin’s theories.Fogel focuses largely on Conrad’s
130 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
political novels and looks at the ways characters speak to one another, or
more particularly the ways they force others to speak. Fogel sees coerced
speech as a major feature of Conrad’s works. Similarly informed by post-
structural thought, Suresh Ravel’s The Art of Failure: Conrad’s Fiction (1986)
considers Conrad’s skepticism toward language and fiction, which leads to
despair at achieving ultimate understanding and also leads to dilemmas in
human social and political life. Ravelargues that throughout Conrad’s works,
opposing ideas exist and intermingle, resulting in philosophical complexity
and demonstrating the ultimate indeterminacy of any definitive conclusions
to the issues raised. Somewhat diVerent from these other theoretically
informed studies, Jakob Lothe’s Conrad’s Narrative Method (1989) is more
eclectic and is informedbystructuralism, narratology, and other contemporary
literary theory. Lothe disputes the idea that content precedes form in
fiction and in that light investigates Conrad’s narrative methodology. Lothe
discusses Conrad’s narrative methodology itself as well as the relationship
between narrative and thematics in Conrad’s works.
Along with poststructural approaches, issues of postcolonialism appeared
during this time. Following the lead of Achebe, Singh, Hawkins, and others,
John A. McClure’s Kipling and Conrad: The Colonial Fiction (1981) looks at
the works of Kipling and Conrad in relation to the issue of colonialism,
arguing in particular that both writers challenged Romantic ideas about
colonialism. McClure also looks at their diVering responses to the topic,
suggesting that while Kipling often looked for ways to improve the colonial
system, Conrad saw little to redeem it. Similarly, Benita Parry’s Conrad and
Imperialism: Ideological Boundaries and Visionary Frontiers (1983) considers
issues of colonialism in Conrad’s fiction. Parry’s work is particularly
informed by Marxist theory, and she argues that on the one hand Conrad
aYrms certain aspects of European imperialism, while at the same time
critiquing it.
In addition to poststructural and postcolonial commentaries, other important
studies appeared during this time.FollowingWiley andPalmer, Gary
Geddes’s Conrad’s LaterNovels (1980) is a defense of Conrad’s later fiction in
which he argues that Conrad attempts something diVerent in his later fiction.
Unlike the psychological dramas of his earlier works, Conrad focuses on
Romance and symbol in his later works. Geddes sees Conrad as a skeptical
Humanist in these works, with the concept of the rescue predominating
them. In particular, Geddes sees the value of Conrad’s later works in the
ironic Romances he wrote. Similarly, Daniel R. Schwarz’s Conrad: The Later
Fiction (1982) also rejects the achievement and decline theory of Conrad’s
career. Though formalist in method and Humanist in idea, Schwarz works
Conrad criticism 131
less from an overarching thesis than from analyses of individual works. In
particular,he defends the quality of Conrad’s later fiction and argues against
Moser’s criticism of the love relationships in the later works. The groundwork
laidbyWiley,Palmer, Geddes, and Schwarz lead to much of the debate
over the achievement and decline theory that exists today.
As for biographical works, Zdzislaw Najder’s Joseph Conrad: A Chronicle
(1983), was, and it still is, the single most important biography on Conrad.
Having access to materials in Polish as well as those in French and English
alongwithhis closerelianceon documentevidence,Najder was abletogivea
more complete picture of Conrad than had previously been possible. Furthermore,
his strict reliance on documentation results in a minimum of
speculation.
Continuing the trend begun largely in the 1980s, a number of works
that appeared in the 1990s proceed from poststructural and other contemporary
literary theory. Informed by contemporary narrative theory, Jeremy
Hawthorn’s Joseph Conrad: Narrative Technique and Ideological Commitment
(1990) looks at the relationship between form and content in Conrad’s
works, arguing that the two are inextricably intertwined in Conrad’s most
successful works. In fact,Hawthorn suggests that the disjunction between the
two signals Conrad’s failed literary eVorts. Similarly, poststructural theory
informs Daphna Erdinast-Vulcan’s Joseph Conrad and the Modern Temper
(1991),asshe sees ConradrespondingtotheModernistviewoftheworld.In
particular, she looks at Conrad’s aYnities with Nietzsche’s view of the world
and focuses heavily on a conflict in Conrad’s fiction between his wish to
believe in values but his inability to do so. Working from a diVerent post-
structural background, Bruce Henricksen’s Nomadic Voices: Conrad and the
Subject of Narrative (1992) proceeds from the views of Bakhtin and JeanFranc
¸oisLyotard and argues that Conrad’sworks movefrom monologicin
The Nigger of the ‘‘Narcissus’’ to polyphonic in Under Western Eyes. In the
process, Henricksen takes issue with Fogel’s Coercion to Speak and looks at
the opposing individual and political views in Conrad’s texts as manifestations
of the dialogic quality of those works. In the same way, he sees the
problem of the modern fragmented self in the various ‘‘nomadic’’ voices that
appear in Conrad’s works. Poststructural thought also runs in the background
of GeoVrey Galt Harpham’s OneofUs: TheMastery ofJosephConrad
(1996), in which he considers the ‘‘three lives’’ of Karl’s biography, that is
Conrad’s life as a youth in Poland, as a mariner at sea, and as a writer in
England, but not as separate and consecutive entities but rather as a kind of
simultaneity, looking at the wayConrad both mastered and was mastered by
the environment in which he existed. Similarly, working from a background
132 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
in contemporaryliterarytheory, in TheStrangeShort FictionofJosephConrad:
Writing, Culture and Subjectivity (1999), Daphna Erdinast-Vulcan both
follows upon and diverges from her earlier book. Influenced by Jacques
Derrida and Bakhtin, Erdinast-Vulcan considers the problems of the author
and subjectivity in Conrad’s short fiction. In particular, she argues that Con-
rad’sRomanticismandModernism canbelinkedtoPostmodernism suchthat
Conrad’s works exhibit relationships between metaphysics and subjectivity,
between subjectivity and inter-subjectivity, and between psychology and
textuality, as well as evidencing a wish for subjective aesthetization.
Although the issue of women in Conrad dates at least as far back as
Colbrun’s 1914 essay, it is a topic that had been largely ignored, except for
some occasional essays on the subject. Ruth L. Nadelhaft’s Joseph Conrad
(1991) is the first extended study of Conrad and his works in light of feminist
theory.Inparticular,Nadelhaft argues that Conrad’s female charactershavea
much greater role in Conrad’s fiction than has usually been assumed.
FollowingNadelhaft’s lead,Susan Jones, inConrad andWomen(1999), argues
that contrary to long-accepted tradition, Conrad is not a man’s author but
rather that women strongly influenced his writing, that women characters
often serve crucial roles in his fiction, and that Conrad usually had women
particularly in mind as his reading public. She suggests that this fact
was especially true of Conrad’s later career. In the process of her argument,
Jones also rejects the achievement and decline view of Conrad’s career. Both
Nadelhaft and Jones opened up the issue of women in Conrad’s works and
pointed the way to a new and now expanding direction for Conrad studies.
The continuing interest in postcolonial studies in general during this time
also appears extensivelyin Conrad studies. Thesewriters,of course, followin
the footsteps of such earlier commentators as Achebe, McClure, Parry, and
others, and each considers diVerent aspects of the issue. Chris Bongie’s Exotic
Memories: Literature,Colonialism, and theFin de Sie`cle (1991) argues that the
exoticism that some writers at the turn of the twentieth century looked
toward was in essence already a thing of the past. Bongie suggests that in
‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ Conrad argues for a tension between criticizing and
rationalizing colonialism, and of Conrad’s other colonial works, Bongie
argues that contrary to nineteenth-century exoticism Conrad represents an
exoticism devoid of the sharp distinctions between primitive and civilized.
On the other hand, Andrea White’s Joseph Conrad and the Adventure Tradition:
Constructing and Deconstructing the Imperial Subject (1993) considers
the nineteenth-century adventure tradition and uses Conrad’s works before
1900 to argue that he admired the discoveries and accomplishments of that
tradition while at the same time rejecting much of the imperialist baggage
Conrad criticism 133
that came with it. Christopher GoGwilt’s The Invention of the West: Joseph
Conrad and the Double-Mapping of Europe and Empire (1995) is one of the
more important works in this area. Going back to the very heart of the
distinctions between EastandWest,he argues thatthe ideaofa unifiedWest
was one that was constructed in order to dominate the non-Western world.
GoGwilt considers Conrad’s view of the West and suggests that he vacillates
between supporting and rejecting the idea of the West as it had been
constructed.
Several other important studies appeared in the 1990s. Yves Hervouet’s
The French Face of Joseph Conrad (1990) considers the influence of French
literature on Conrad’s works. Hervouet discusses Conrad’s knowledge of
French authors as well as the literary, aesthetic, and philosophical influence
of specificwriters on Conrad’s fiction. Although Conrad’sPolish background
had long been the study of scholars, no one before had extensively considered
the significant influence of French literature and culture on Conrad’s development.
In the area of philosophical approaches, Mark A. Wollaeger’s Joseph
Conrad and the Fictions of Skepticism (1990) considers Conrad’s skepticism
in light of a tradition of philosophical skepticism descending from Rene´
Descartes to Stanley Cavell. In particular, Wollaeger argues for a dialogical
tension between competing ideas in Conrad’s fiction, specifically between
skepticism and attempts to resist the consequences of skepticism. Similarly,
although others had previously argued for Existential elements in Conrad’s
works, Otto Bohlmann’s Conrad’s Existentialism (1991) thoroughly investigates
the issue and argues for Conrad as a proto-Existentialist, considering
Conrad’sworksinlightofa numberof Existentialist thinkers, includingJean-
Paul Sartre, Albert Camus,S renKierkegaard,Nietzsche, Gabriel Marcel, and
others. In particular,he looks at the ideas of Being in the world, the quest for
selfhood, condemned to be free, and Being with others.
The turn of the twenty-first century has not witnessed a slackening of
interest in Conrad studies.While manyother traditionally canonical authors
receive less and less attention, interest in Conrad seems to be burgeoning, as
evidenced by the number of important Conrad studies that have already
appeared. For instance, Peter Edgerly Firchow’s Envisioning Africa: Racism
and Imperialism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (2000) jumps into the fray
regarding Conrad and colonialism and sets out to defend him against
Achebe’s charges of racism. Firchow argues that Achebe misunderstands
Conrad, and he suggests that Conrad sought to represent not Africa but
rather an image of Africa. Firchow further argues that issues of race and
imperialism had a diVerent meaning in Conrad’s time from now and that
Conrad should be judged in the context of his own time. Similarly, Robert
134 The Cambridge Introduction to Joseph Conrad
Hampson’sCross-Cultural Encounters inJosephConrad’sMalay Fiction (2000)
workswith new historicist, postcolonial, and postmodern theoryto argue that
Conrad’s writing about the Malay Archipelago resulted both from his own
experience and from a Western construction of Malaysia. Hampson suggests
that Conrad recognized this cultural construction and consistently undermined
it. In the process, Hampson identifies the problems with Western
attempts to inscribe non-Western cultures. Augmenting this discussion,
Stephen Ross, in his Conrad and Empire (2004), works from contemporary
theoretical ideas and argues that Conrad’s interest in imperialism is only part
ofa larger concernwiththeproblemofglobalization.He sees Conrad’snovels
confronting a global capitalism that has replaced the traditional concept of
nation-state and demonstrates the eVects of such a change on the individuals
that populate his fiction.
In addition to postcolonial issues, poststructural issues have continued to
play a prominent role in Conrad studies. Andrew Michael Roberts’s Conrad
and Masculinity (2000) considers contemporary issues of gender in light of
poststructural theory, as he looks at masculinity in Conrad and views it as a
cultural construct, arguing that Conrad both represents and at the same time
questions this construct. In the process, he also argues for links between
masculinity and imperialism, feminism, and homoeroticism. In another use
of poststructural theory, Michael Greaney’s Conrad, Language, andNarrative
(2002) focuses on the ideas of speech and narrative. Influenced by Derrida
and Bakhtin, Greaney suggests that a tension exists between speech and
writingin Conrad’sworks.Tothisend,hearguesforthreephasesof narrative
development. The first that occurs is storytelling in the oral or communal
mode that appears in the early Malay fiction. This mode evolves into a
second phase, represented by the Marlow narratives, in which a tension
develops between authentic and inauthentic language. Finally, a third mode
appears in the political novels in which storytelling gives way to Modernist
aesthetics. Also looking at language and Modernity, but from a diVerent
angle, Con Coroneos, in Space, Conrad, and Modernity (2002), is especially
influenced by the ideas of Michel Foucault and considers the relationship
between space and Modernity, using Conrad as a kind of touchstone for his
discussion.Inparticular,heis interestedinthe opposition betweena spaceof
things anda spaceof words.To this end,he considers the ideaof closed space
and argues that language (one of the book’s major concerns) is a means of
escaping the limitations of closed space.
Othertwenty-first-centurystudiesofConrad’sworksincludemyown Conrad
and Impressionism (2001)and Martin Bock’s Joseph Conrad and Psychological
Medicine (2002).Conrad andImpressionismisaphilosophical studythat argues
Conrad criticism 135
that an Impressionist epistemology runs throughout Conrad’s works and
manifests itself in his narrative techniques. This epistemology results from
Conrad’s skepticism regarding the ability of human beings to know anything
withcertainty.Consequently,alink existsbetweenConrad’sliterary technique,
philosophicalpresuppositions,and socio-politicalviews.Onthe otherhand, as
the title suggests, Joseph Conrad and Psychological Medicine is a psychological
study that arguesforapplyingpre-Freudian medicalpsychology whenlooking
atthephysical and mentalillnessesinConrad’slifeandworksand suggesting
that Conrad’s works consistently deal with various forms of mental illness,
particularly hysteria, and that such issues as seclusion, restraint, and water,
which appearprominentlyinConrad’sworks,comefromcontemporary medicalviewsofthe
time.TwootherrecentbooksconsiderareasofConrad studies
thatpreviouslyhad receivedlittle attention.RichardJ.Hand,in TheTheatre of
Joseph Conrad: Reconstructed Fictions (2005), argues that Conrad’s plays are
worthstudying.HandlooksatConrad’sdramainlightof the well-madeplay
and contemporary melodrama,whilealsoarguingthattheseplayslookforward
to TheatreoftheAbsurd and containovertonesofGrand-Guignol,Symbolism,
andExpressionism.In adiVerentdirection,Stephen Donovan’s JosephConrad
and Popular Culture (2005)reconsiderstheideathatConrad scornedpopular
culture, arguing instead that although Conrad often did look down upon
popular culture, his works are filled with references to the popular culture of
the time. Donovan further argues that one can gain a greater understanding
ofConrad’sworksby understandingthepopularcultureinwhichhe wrote.
Thesheer numberofbooksthathavebeenwritten andcontinuetobewritten
on this unique literary figure attests to Conrad’s place in twentieth-century
Britishliterature and tohisinterest to students ofliterature today.
Guide
to
further
reading
What follows is a brieflistof works that would be particularly useful to students.
Naturally, much of what is contained in Chapter 6 would also be valuable to
students, but this Guide to further reading focuses specifically on works that
would be accessible to and appropriate for undergraduate and graduate students.
Included are both primary and secondary works.
Primary
texts
Conrad’s
writings
Conrad, Joseph. The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Joseph Conrad. 3 vols. to
date. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990–
The Cambridge editions are considered authoritative editions of
Conrad’s works. Only three volumes, however, have been published at this
point in time.
Conrad, Joseph. TheCompleteWorksofJoseph Conrad.26 vols. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1926.
In the United States, the Doubleday edition, often called the Uniform
edition, is the standard edition where the Cambridge edition is not
available.
Conrad, Joseph. The Collected Edition of the Works of Joseph Conrad. 22 vols.
London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1946–55.
In the United Kingdom, the Dent collected edition is generally considered the
standard edition where the Cambridge edition is not available.
Conrad’s
letters
Conrad, Joseph. The Collected Letters of Joseph Conrad, ed. Frederick
R. Karl, Laurence Davies, J. H. Stape, and Owen Knowles. 7 vols. to date.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983–
Guide to further reading 137
The Cambridge University Press edition of Conrad’s letters is the most
authoritative edition, but it is not quite complete, covering letters to 1922.
Jean-Aubry, G. Joseph Conrad: Life and Letters. 2 vols. Garden City, NY:
Doubleday, Page & Co., 1927.
For Conrad’s letters of 1923 and 1924, Jean-Aubry’s edition is probably the
best.
Secondary
texts
Commentary
Achebe, Chinua. ‘‘An Image of Africa.’’ Massachusetts Review 18.4 (winter 1977):
782–94.
The essay that began the still ongoing discussion concerning Conrad’s
relationship to colonialism and argues that Conrad’s portrayal of Africans is
racist.
Berthoud, Jacques. Joseph Conrad: The Major Phase. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1978.
A good overview with solid and clear discussions of Conrad’s works in light of
Conrad’s own views of art.
Carabine, Keith, ed. Joseph Conrad: Critical Assessments. 4 vols. Mountfield,
East Essex, England: Helm Information, 1992.
A useful collection of reviews and articles about Conrad’s works.
Daleski, H. M. Joseph Conrad: The Way of Dispossession. London: Faber & Faber,
1977.
A good commentary on Conrad’s works, which focuses on issues of the self.
Fleishman, Avrom. Conrad’s Politics: Community and Anarchy in the Fiction of
Joseph Conrad. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967.
A good discussion of Conrad’s politics, which argues for Conrad as a more
liberal political thinker than what had usually been assumed, somewhat
challenging but nevertheless accessible.
Gillon, Adam. Joseph Conrad. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982.
A useful overview of Conrad’s works, which emphasizes Conrad’s Polish
background.
Guerard, AlbertJ. Conrad theNovelist. Cambridge, Mass.: HarvardUniversity
Press, 1958.
A standard work of Conrad studies with well-argued readings of Conrad’s
works.
Gurko, Leo. Joseph Conrad: Giant in Exile.NewYork: Macmillan Publishing Co.,
1962.
A helpful general commentary on Conrad’s works.
Hay, Eloise Knapp. The Political Novels of Joseph Conrad: A Critical Study.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
138 Guide to further reading
A good commentary on Conrad’s politics, which tends to see Conrad as a
political conservative.
Hewitt, Douglas. Conrad: A Reassessment. Cambridge: Bowes & Bowes
Publishers, 1952.
A standard work of Conrad studies, which argues for the quality of Conrad’s
works at a time in which his reputation was still in question.
Jones, Susan. Conrad and Women. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999.
Avery good commentary on women in Conrad’s works.
Karl, Frederick R. A Reader’s Guide to Joseph Conrad,rev. edn.NewYork: Farrar,
Straus & Giroux, 1969.
A good general overview of Conrad’s works, although many works are
dismissed out of hand.
Knowles, Owen and Gene M. Moore. Oxford Reader’s Companion to Conrad.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
A fine reference book to Conrad’s life and works.
Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad.
New York: George W. Stewart, Publisher [1948].
This book contains an important chapter that argues that Conrad was a major
figure in a great tradition of English novelists.
Miller,J.Hillis. Poets ofReality: SixTwentieth-CenturyWriters. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1965.
This book contains an influential chapter on Conrad that emphasizes
Conrad’s philosophical skepticism.
Moore, Gene M., ed. Conrad on Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1997.
A good collection of essays on the filming of Conrad’s works.
Moser, Thomas C. Joseph Conrad: Achievement and Decline. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1957.
A standard work in Conrad studies, which argues for an artistic decline in
Conrad’s later works,largelyasaresultofhisemphasison romancein those
works.
Nadelhaft, Ruth L. Joseph Conrad. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press
International, 1991.
A general overview of Conrad’s works focusing on the role of women in those
works.
Palmer, John A. Joseph Conrad’s Fiction: A Study in Literary Growth. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 1968.
A helpful discussion of Conrad’s works that does not dismiss Conrad’s later
works.
Peters, John G. Conrad and Impressionism. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2001.
A look at Conrad’s works in light of philosophies of knowledge.
Schwarz, Daniel R. Conrad: ‘‘Almayer’s Folly’’ to ‘‘Under Western Eyes.’’ Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press, 1980.
A useful formalist reading of Conrad’s early and middle writings.
Guide to further reading 139
Stape, J. H., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Joseph Conrad. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1996.
A good collection of essays covering the major issues surrounding Conrad’s
works.
Warren, Robert Penn. ‘‘Introduction.’’ Nostromo by Joseph Conrad. New York:
The Modern Library, 1951.
Although focusing on Nostromo, this is an important commentary on
Conrad’s works in general, particularly emphasizing the philosophical
aspects of Conrad’s works.
Watt, Ian. Conrad in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1979.
A standard work of Conrad commentary, which works from a close reading of
the texts and considers them in the context of their intellectual history.
Zabel, Morton Dauwen. ‘‘Introduction.’’ The Portable Conrad. New York: Viking
Press, 1947, 1–47.
An important critical work on Conrad’s works and one of the principle
commentaries in restoring Conrad’s reputation from its decline after
Conrad’s death, it emphasizes the moral and psychological aspects of
Conrad’s works.
Biographical
works
Baines, Jocelyn. Joseph Conrad: A Critical Biography. London: Weidenfeld &
Nicolson, 1959.
A good literary biography, although it has since been superseded by the influx
of Polish biographical sources.
Najder, Zdzislaw. Joseph Conrad: A Chronicle, trans. Halina Carroll-Najder.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
The best biography of Conrad.
Sherry, Norman. Conrad’s Eastern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1966.
An important book, which searches for the sources for Conrad’s themes and
characters in his works set in the East.
Conrad’s Western World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
A companion to Sherry’s earlier volume, this book focuses on Conrad’s works
set in the West.
Bibliographies
Knowles, Owen. An Annotated Critical Bibliography of Joseph Conrad. New York:
St. Martin’s Press, 1992.
A good, selective, annotated bibliography of commentary on Conrad’s life and
works through 1990.
140 Guide to further reading
Teets, Bruce E. Joseph Conrad: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland
Publishing, 1990.
A useful annotated bibliography of commentary from 1965 to 1975, including
much of the commentary from 1895 until 1965 that does not appear in the
Teets and Gerber bibliography.
Teets, Bruce E. and Helmut E. Gerber. JosephConrad:AnAnnotated Bibliography
of Writings about Him. De Kalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971.
A useful, though incomplete, annotated bibliography of commentary on
Conrad’s life and works from 1895 until 1965.
Index
Achebe, Chinua 127, 130, 132, 133
Adowa 5
Alexander II, Tsar 21
Allen, Jerry 126
Anarchism 21–2
Anderson, Jane 15
Baines, Jocelyn 124, 128
Bakhtin, Mikhail 129, 131,
132, 134
Bakunin, Mikhail 22
Bancroft, William Wallace
122, 128
Beach, Joseph Warren 121
Beer, Thomas 18
Beerbohm, Max 11
Bendz, Ernst 121
Bentham, Jeremy 30
Bergson, Henri 30
Bernard, Claude 34
Blackwood’s Magazine 7, 8
Blanc, Louis 23
Blanqui, Louis-Auguste 23
Bobrowska, Ewelina 1
Bobrowski, Tadeusz 1, 2, 5, 6
Bock, Martin 134, 135
Boer War (Second) 9
Bohlmann, Otto 133
Bonaparte, Napoleon, and Napoleonic
France 19–20, 85, 112, 113,
116, 117
Bongie, Chris 132
Bonney, William W. 129
Bradbrook, M. C. 122–3, 124
Cabet, E ´ tienne 23
Camus, Albert 133
cannibalism 9, 58–60, 72–3
Casement, Roger 4
Cavell, Stanley 133
chance 101, 110
Colbron, Grace Isabel 120
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 33
Comte, Auguste 30
Conrad, Borys 7, 16
Conrad (George), Jessie 6, 11, 15, 16,
17, 114, 121–2
Conrad, John 11
Conrad, Joseph
achievement and decline theory
99, 102, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127,
130–1, 132
betrayal, views on 13, 40, 44–5, 49,
86, 89, 90, 94, 109–10, 124
colonialism and imperialism,
views on 19, 25–6, 40–2,
43–4, 49–50, 51, 54, 56–60,
75–6, 127, 133
honor, views on 62, 63, 64, 84, 115
human existence and the
nature of the universe, views
on 4, 26, 33, 46, 55, 62, 63,
70, 71, 73, 83, 84, 85, 87,
89–90, 97, 98, 101, 110, 120,
125, 126, 128
human relationships, views on
importance of 50, 63–4, 67–8, 74,
77–8, 79, 82–3, 86, 87, 89, 92–4,
96, 102–3, 104–5
142 Index
Conrad, Joseph (cont.)
knowledge, views on 33, 50, 65–6,
69, 75, 100, 106, 107, 111
morality, views on 40, 42, 50, 51, 58,
60–1, 62, 65, 75, 79, 89, 94, 96,
100, 106, 116–17, 123, 125, 127
narrative methodology 46, 48, 49,
52, 54, 55, 65–6, 69, 74–5, 83–4,
88, 100, 106, 107, 108, 111, 117,
122, 129, 130, 131, 134, 135
politics, views on 1, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13,
15, 16, 20, 21, 24, 38, 73, 74, 75,
79, 80–1, 82–3, 86, 87–8, 89,
90–2, 93, 113–14, 115, 116, 124,
125, 129, 130
racism 40–1, 43, 47, 98, 127, 133
self, views on the 54, 61, 62, 94, 95,
96, 103, 109, 125, 128–9
shelter from truths, views on need
for 62, 69–70
skepticism 1, 7, 9, 15, 24, 26, 123,
130, 133, 135
solidarity, community, and
isolation, views on 33, 40, 44,
46–7, 50, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71–2,
101, 103–4, 109–10, 113, 115,
120, 124, 125, 128
Western civilization, views on 4, 26,
38, 42, 50, 56, 57, 58–62, 66–7,
72–3, 81–2, 85–6, 92
women and gender, views on 39, 45,
48, 62, 71, 82, 84, 100–1, 111–12,
118, 120, 122, 132, 134
works:
Almayer’s Folly 3, 5, 6, 32, 37–9,
40, 42, 55, 114, 122
‘‘Amy Foster’’ 9, 10, 71–2, 121
‘‘The Anarchist’’ 11, 12, 23, 87–8
The Arrow of Gold 2, 16, 17,
110–12, 120, 127
‘‘The Ascending EVort’’ 13
‘‘Autocracy and War’’ 11
‘‘Because of the Dollars’’ 14, 15,
17, 107–8
‘‘The Black Mate’’ 12, 114–15
‘‘Books’’ 11
‘‘The Brute’’ 11, 12, 83–4
Chance 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17,
27, 52, 99–101, 111, 120
Children of the Sea 45
‘‘Christmas Day at Sea’’ 18
‘‘Confidence’’ 16
‘‘Congo Diary’’ 4
‘‘The Crime of Partition’’ 16
‘‘The Dover Patrol’’ 17
‘‘The Duel’’ 12, 20, 73, 85–6, 87,
101, 113
‘‘The End of the Tether’’ 10, 62–4
‘‘Falk’’ 3, 9, 10, 72–3, 85, 87, 101
‘‘First News’’ 16
‘‘Flight’’ 16
‘‘Freya of the Seven Isles’’ 13, 14,
96–7, 98
‘‘Gaspar Ruiz’’ 11, 12, 17, 21,
23, 86
‘‘Geography and Some
Explorers’’ 18
‘‘A Happy Wanderer’’ 13
‘‘Heart of Darkness’’ 4, 8, 10, 27,
30, 33, 50, 52, 54–62, 65, 74,
75, 82, 99, 103, 106, 111, 123,
125, 127, 132, 133
‘‘The Idiots’’ 6, 7, 48, 122
‘‘Il Conde’’ 12, 84
‘‘The Informer’’ 11, 12, 23, 86–7
The Inheritors 8, 9
‘‘The Inn of theTwoWitches’’ 14,
15, 106–7
The Isle of Rest 17
‘‘Karain: A Memory’’ 7, 14, 48,
49–50
‘‘The Lagoon’’ 6, 7, 48–9, 50
Laughing Anne 17
‘‘Legends’’ 18
‘‘The Life Beyond’’ 13
Lord Jim 8, 9, 30, 32, 34, 52, 63,
64–9, 70, 74, 75, 79, 86, 95, 99,
100, 106, 111, 121, 125, 129
The Mirror of the Sea 10, 11
The Nature of the Crime 8, 11, 18
Index 143
TheNigger of the ‘‘Narcissus’’ 3,6,
7, 45–7, 69, 109, 125, 131
Nostromo 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 23,
33, 43, 63, 73–9, 80, 81, 86,
100, 121, 122, 123–4, 129
Notes on Life and Letters 13, 16,
17, 120
One More Day 10, 11
An Outcast of the Islands 5, 6, 37,
39–42
‘‘An Outpost of Progress’’ 4, 7,
50–1
‘‘Outside Literature’’ 18
‘‘The Partner’’ 13, 15, 105–6, 107
A Personal Record 12, 13, 14
‘‘The Planter of Malata’’ 14, 15,
104–5, 126
‘‘Prince Roman’’ 13, 24, 115
‘‘Razumov’’ 12
The Rescue (The Rescuer)6, 7, 8,
11, 15, 16, 17, 37, 42–5, 84,
120, 127
‘‘The Return’’ 7, 9, 50, 122
Romance (Seraphina)8, 9, 10
The Rover 17, 18, 20, 112–14,
116, 127
The SecretAgent 11, 12, 18, 23, 27,
30, 31, 35, 50, 79–83, 86,
113, 126
‘‘The Secret Sharer’’ 3, 13, 14, 17,
94–6, 98, 107, 108, 109,
123, 126
A Set of Six 12, 83–8
The Shadow-Line 3, 13, 15, 16, 35,
99, 108–10, 122, 125, 126
Shorter Tales 18
‘‘The Silence of the Sea’’ 12
The Sisters 6, 118
‘‘A Smile of Fortune’’ 3, 9, 13, 14
Suspense 17, 18, 20, 113, 114, 118,
122, 127
‘‘The Tale’’ 15, 116–17
Tales of Hearsay 114–17
Tales of Unrest 7, 8, 47–51
‘‘To-morrow’’ 10, 71
‘‘The Torrens – A Personal
Tribute’’ 18
’Twixt Land and Sea 14, 94–8
‘‘Two Vagabonds’’ 5
‘‘Typhoon’’ 9, 10, 33, 69–70,
109, 122
Typhoon and Other Stories 10,
69–73
UnderWestern Eyes 11, 12, 13, 15,
20, 21, 23, 31, 63, 73, 85, 86, 87,
88–94, 99, 101, 113, 124, 131
‘‘The Unlighted Coast’’ 16
‘‘Verloc’’ 11
Victory 14, 15, 30, 99, 101–4, 107,
110, 122
‘‘The Warrior’s Soul’’ 15, 20,
113, 116
‘‘Well Done’’ 16
Within the Tides 15, 104–8
‘‘Youth’’ 2, 3, 7, 8, 10, 52–4, 99
Youth and Two Other Stories 10,
52–64
Cooper, James Fenimore 2
Coroneos, Con 134
Cox, C. B. 128
Crane, Stephen 7, 9, 18
The Red Badge of Courage 18
Crankshaw, Edward 122, 123
Cunninghame Graham, R. B. 7, 114
Curle, Richard 119–20, 121
Daleski, H. M. 128–9
Dalton, John 29
Darwin, Charles 28, 29, 34
Derrida, Jacques 132, 134
Descartes, Rene´ 133
Dilthey, Wilhelm 30
Donovan, Stephen 135
Doubleday, Nelson 18
Durkheim, Emile 30
Engels, Friedrich 23
Enlightenment 33
Erdinast-Vulcan, Daphna 131, 132
Existentialism 128, 133
144 Index
Expressionism 135
Faraday, Michael 29
Firchow, Peter Edgerly 133
Fleishman, Avrom 125
Florida 4
Fogel, Aaron 129–30, 131
Follett, Wilson 119, 120, 121
Ford, Elsie 12
Ford (HueVer), Ford Madox 8,
9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 100,
120–1
The Good Soldier 100
Forster, E. M. 120
Foucault, Michel 134
Fourier, Franc¸ois-Marie-Charles 22
Fresnel, Augustin-Jean 29
Galsworthy, John 4, 11
Garnett, Edward 5, 6, 7, 8, 16, 54
Geddes, Gary 99, 130, 131
George, Jessie See Conrad, Jessie
Gide, Andre´ 13
GoGwilt, Christopher 133
Gordon, John Dozier 122
Grand-Guignol 135
Graver, Lawrence 126
Greaney, Michael 134
Guerard, Albert J. 99, 123, 124–5, 129
Hampson, Robert 99, 133–4
Hand, Richard J. 135
Harpham, GeoVrey Galt 131
Hawkins, Hunt 127, 130
Hawthorn, Jeremy 129, 131
Hay, Eloise Knapp 125
Helmholtz, Hermann von 29
Henricksen, Bruce 131
Hervouet, Yves 133
Herzen, Alexandr 23
Hewitt, Douglas 99, 123–4
Hicks, Granville 121
Howe, Irving 124, 125
Humanism 130
Husserl, Edmund 30
Huxley, T. H. 28
Impressionism 33, 35–6, 121, 129,
134–5
industrialism 19, 26–7
James, Henry 6, 9, 11, 14, 100, 120
Jameson, Fredric 129
Jean-Aubry, G. 121
Johnson, Bruce 128
Jones, Susan 99, 132
Joule, James Prescott 29
Kant, Immanuel 30
Karl, Frederick R. 127–8, 131
Kierkegaard, S ren 30, 133
Kipling, Rudyard 11, 128, 130
Klein, George Antoine 4
Koch, Robert 29
Korzeniowski, Apollo 1, 2, 33
Leavis, F. R. 123
Lee, Robert F. 127
Lewes, G. H. 30
Loch Etive 2
Lombroso, Cesare 30, 80, 81
Lothe, Jakob 130
Lutoslawski, Wincenty 8
Lyell, Charles 28, 29
Lyotard,Jean-Franc¸ois 131
MacDonald, Ramsay 18
Marcel, Gabriel 133
Marryat, Frederick 2
Marx, Karl 23
Marxism 129, 130
Maxwell, James Clerk 29
Mayer, Julius Robert von 29
McClure, John A. 130, 132
Me´groz, R. L. 122
melodrama 96, 97, 102,
106, 135
Meyer, Bernard C. 126
Mickiewicz, Adam 33
Mill, John Stuart 30
Miller, J. Hillis 126, 128, 129
Modernism 31–3, 131, 132, 134
Morf, Gustav 121, 123
Moser, Thomas C. 99, 124, 125,
129, 131
Nadelhaft, Ruth 132
Najder, Zdzislaw 121, 131
Narcissus 3
Naturalism 30, 33, 34, 35
Neoclassicism 33
Nicholas I, Tsar 20–1
Nietzsche, Friedrich 30, 131, 133
nihilism 126, 129
Orzeszkowa, Eliza 8
Otago 3
Palestine 2–3
Palmer, John A. 99, 126–7, 130, 131
Parry, Benita 130, 132
Pasteur, Louis 29
Peters, John G. 134–5
Petrarch, Francis 32
Pinker, James B. 9, 17–18
Plehve,VyacheslavKonstantinovich 21
Poland, history and politics
of 23–6
Poradowska, Marguerite 3
Poradowski, Aleksander 3
Positivism 29–30
postcolonialism 130, 132–3, 134
postmodernism 132, 134
poststructuralism 129, 130, 131, 134
Pound, Ezra 32
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 21–2, 23
Quinn, John 13, 14
Ravel, Suresh 130
Realism 30, 33, 34–5, 105, 119
Renan, Ernest 30
Retinger, Jo´ zef 14
Roberts, Andrew Michael 134
Roi des Belges 4
Romance 37–8, 40, 121, 129, 130
Index 145
Romanticism 33–4, 66, 67, 68, 105,
119, 128, 132
Ross, Stephen 134
Rothenstein, William 10, 11
Roussel, Royal 128, 129
Russell, Bertrand 14
Russia, history and politics
of 20–3
Said, Edward W. 126
Saint Antoine 2
Saint-Simon, Henri de 22
Sanderson, Edward Lancelot 4, 8
Sanguszko, Prince Roman 24, 115
Sartre, Jean-Paul 133
Schleiden, Matthias 29
Schopenhauer, Arthur 29, 30–1
Schwann, Theodor 29
Schwarz, Daniel R. 99, 130–1
Shakespeare, William 32
Shaw, George Bernard 11
Shelley, Percy Bysshe 32
Sherry, Norman 125–6, 127
Singh, Francis B. 127, 130
Slowacki, Julius 33
Socialism 22–3
Spencer, Herbert 30
StauVer, Ruth M. 128
Stephen, Leslie 30
Stevenson, Robert Louis 128
Surrealism 35
Symbolism 129, 135
Taine, Hippolyte 30
Theatre of the Absurd 135
Thomas, Edward 16
Thompson, William 29
Thorburn, David 128
Thys, Albert 3
Tilkhurst 3
Titanic 14
Torrens 4
Traugutt, Romuald 24
Turgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich 16
146 Index
Unwin, T. Fisher 5
Vidar 3
Walpole, Hugh 121, 128
Warren, Robert Penn 123
Watt, Ian 48, 129
Well-Made Play 135
Wells, H. G. 6, 11
Western civilization, challenges
to 28–9
White, Andrea 132–3
Whitman, Walt 32
Wielopolski, Aleksander 24
Wilberforce, Bishop Samuel 28
Wiley, Paul L. 124, 127, 130, 131
Winawer, Bruno 17
The Book of Job 17
Wollaeger, Mark A. 133
women and gender 19, 27–8
Woolf, Virginia 17, 120
Wordsworth, William 32
World War I 14, 15–16, 25,
26, 116
Wright, Walter F. 128
Zabel, Morton Dauwen 123
Zola, E ´ mile 34
